Geomorphic Forces and Landforms

Geography with Sandeep Sir
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces

Earth‘s surface is not stable but is changing constantly. None of the landforms
found on the earth surface are forever. There are various geomorphic processes working on the
landforms. These processes were working in the past and also working presently though with
varying degree and intensity. The earth‘s crust is influenced by both internal and external forces,
which may affect the earth on both major and minor scale. Internal forces may include
upliftment, contraction, expansion, disruption, distortion and outpouring. External forces would
include forces of denudation like weathering and erosion. The description of the landforms
cannot be explained only through these forces since these changes are so slow that they go
unnoticed. But when these changes are sudden like volcanic eruptions, landslide and earthquakes
we can observe and notice these changes. The present landforms are a manifestation of complex
and intricate interaction of earth‘s material facing resistance on one hand from and tectonically-
and climatically-derived forces.
As we already know that earth‘s crust is constantly affected by the internal forces.
The main causes of such internal forces can be the radio activity originating within the deep
interiors of the earth‘s crust or substratum and the resultant convection currents caused by it.
These convection currents cause the crust to move which further causes sudden and rapid
movements like earthquakes or extremely slow movement like mountain building and
continental building which may take millions of years. These movements can cause upliftment,
warping, turning, twisting, tilting, fracturing, subsidence and distortion of crust and some
may even cause, squeezing of the rocks which would give rise to high mountain ranges.
There are broadly two kind forces that cause earth movements. They are as follows
Exogenetic forces/Exogenic/Epigene: Exogenetic is mostly destructive forces, which through

various processes would try to change the various relief features on the earth surface by
smoothening, carving and molding these features.
Endogenetic/Endogenic/Hypogene: (In Greek ‗endo‘ means within and ‗genera‘-origin)

Endogenetic forces can give rise to various structural features on earth‘s surface, which
are related to upliftment and subsidence, folding, faulting, fracturing and volcanic eruption. All
the landforms and relief features found on the earth are formed of earth‘s materials. The
landforms are formed because of various geomorphic processes operating on and beneath the
earth‘s surface at differential rate. The exogenetic processes derive their energy from Earth's
internal (endogenetic) which gives mobility to the earth‘s crust (tectonism) and from climate
which takes further help from the sun which is its driving force.
Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

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Geomorphic Process
The formation and deformation of landforms on the surface of the earth are a continuous
process which is due to the continuous influence of external (exogenic) and internal (endogenic)
forces. The internal and external forces causing stresses and chemical action on earth materials
and bringing about changes in the configuration of the surface of the earth are known as
geomorphic processes. Diastrophism and volcanism are endogenic geomorphic processes.
Weathering, mass wasting, erosion and deposition are exogenic geomorphic processes.
Geomorphic Agents
Any exogenic element of nature (like water, ice, wind, etc.,) capable of acquiring and
transporting earth materials can be called a geomorphic agent. When these elements of nature
become mobile due to gradients, they remove the materials and transport them over slopes and
deposit them at lower level. Geomorphic processes and geomorphic agents especially exogenic,
unless stated separately, are one and the same
Geomorphic Processes vs. Geomorphic Agents
A process is a force applied on earth materials affecting the same. An agent is a mobile
medium (like running water, moving ice masses, the wind, waves, and currents etc.) which
removes, transports and deposits earth materials.
Endogenic Forces
The forces which originate from within the earth‘s crust or inside the earth are
called internal or endogenetic forces. The sources providing them energy are the internal heat,

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chemical reactions taking place within the earth, and the transfer of rock materials on the earth‘s
surface by external forces.
The forces working from inside the earth in turn cause movements in its crust.
These movements are called earth movements. Since, these movements pertain to or rise from,
the movements of the actual structure of the earth‘s crust; they are also called tectonic
movements.
On the basis of time taken by such movements, they are divided into:
 Slow movement (diastrophic) and

 Sudden movement.
Slow movements (diastrophic):
The movement which bring about changes on the Earth‘s crust very gradually or
slowly taking hundreds or thousands of years and which cover a period much longer than a
human life span are called slow movements. These movements act on the earth‘s crust either
vertically or horizontally. Acting vertically, they cause uplift or subsidence of a part of the crust.
1. Vertical movements (Epeirogenetic/continental building)
Vertical movements originate from the centre of the earth and affect its surface.
Consequently large scale uplift or subsidence of a part of the earth‘s surface takes place. These
movements are slow and wide spread and do not bring changes in the horizontal rock strata.
These movements are mainly associated with the formations of continents and plateaus, hence
these are also known as continent building or plateau building movements.
In Greek ‗epeiroes‘ means a continent, These are very wide and large scale
movements, spreading over the continental platform or the stable block of land. Therefore these
processes are also known as continental formation. They characterizes by broad, gentle and wide
spread warping, subsidence, upliftment, emergence, submergence, of large land areas. These
movements are so slow and widespread that no obvious folding and fracturing can be seen in the
rocks.
This broad regional tectonic movement with no local deformation can be either
positive movement like upliftment or negative movement like subsidence. Upliftment movement
causes the upliftment of the continental masses, either whole continent or the part of it. It also
causes upliftment of the coastal land of the continents. Such type of upliftment is called
emergence. Subsidence of the continental masses again happens in two ways – one is subsidence
of the land area called subsidence, alternately the land near the sea coast is moved downward or
is subsided below sea level and is thus submerged under sea water. Such movements are called
submergence.

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Generally sedimentary rocks are deposited and formed in the oceans and seas.
The presence of these sedimentary rocks is wide-spread in continents. This clearly shows that
these were uplifted or raised to form continents. Contrary to the above, there are countless
evidences of submerged buildings, river -valleys and cities due to subsidence into the sea. Some
of such examples include the submerged ancient buildings in Mediterranean in its Crete Island
and the ancient city of Dwaraka in Saurashtra, India. These changes clearly point out the
downward movement of the Earth‘s surface.
2. Horizontal Movements (Orogenetic/ mountain building)
There are forces which act on the earth‘s crust from side to side i.e. horizontally
or tangentially. Naturally, they cause a lot of disruption in the horizontal layer of strata as they
do involve a good deal of compression and tension of the preexisting rocks since these forces act
horizontally or tangentially to the earth‘s spherical surface.
We can divide them into two types:
(i) Forces of compression, and

(ii) Forces of tension.
(I) Forces of compression: When crustal rocks are subjected to stress, particularly lateral
compression, they are often deformed by being bent in a process called folding. In this way, the
compressional forces lead to the bending of rock layers and thus lead to the formation of Fold
Mountains. In them the rock strata primarily of sedimentary rocks get folded, into wave like
structure. This process of bending, sometimes warping and twisting of rock strata is referred to
as their folding. The upfolds are called anticlines and downfold are called synclines.
Types of Folds
Structural geologists recognize many kinds of folds. A monocline is a one-sided

fold—a slope connecting two horizontal or gently inclined strata. A simple symmetrical upfold is
an anticline, and a simple downfold is a syncline. Also relatively common is an upfold that has
been pushed so extensively from one side that it becomes over steepened enough to have a
reverse orientation on the other side; such a structure is referred to as an overturned fold. If the
pressure is enough to break the over steepened fold and cause a shearing movement, the result is
an overthrust fold, which causes older rock to ride above younger rock.
Different kind of folds depends upon different factors like nature of the rocks
involved (elasticity and rigidity), intensity and duration of the compressive forces (magnitude).
Difference in the elasticity and the magnitude give rise to leads to difference in the inclinations
of the limbs.
1. Symmetrical folds: both limbs inclined uniformly

2. Asymmetrical folds: both limbs inclined at different angles.

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3. Monocline folds: one limb inclined moderately and one steeply inclined.
4. Isocline folds: both limbs become parallel to each other due to immense force but are not
horizontal.
5. Overturned fold: limbs folded beyond vertical and turn so much that both the limbs
bend in same direction.
6. Recumbent fold: The compressive force is so strong that both the limbs bed and become
parallel to each other.
7. Nappes: When the pressure of the compressive force continuous and as a result the root
of one of the limb is uprooted and thrust on the opposite limb
When folding takes place on a gigantic scale, it represents the mountain building
process. Most of the great mountain chains of the world viz, the Himalaya, the Rockies, the
Andes, the Alps and others of this sort have been formed by compressional forces resulting in
mountain building on a large scale. These are also called Orogenetic Movements.

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(ii) Forces of tension: are produced when these forces are working horizontally in opposite
directions i.e., away from a given plane or point. Under the operation of intense tensional forces,
the rock strata is broken or fractured. As a result cracks and fractures develop. The displacement
of rocks upward or downward from their original position along such a fracture is termed as
faulting. The line along which displacement of the fractured rock strata takes place is called the
fault line. Likewise the plane along which displacement of rock strata takes place is known as
fault plane.
Faulting results in the formation of well-known relief features such as rift valleys and the block
mountains.

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A rift valley is formed by sinking of rock strata lying between two almost parallel
faults. A rift valley is a trough with steep parallel walls along the fault lines. Such a valley is also
called a graben. Examples of rift valleys in the world include the Midland Valley of Scotland,
the Rhine Valley, the Valley of Nile, the Dead Sea basin and the Great Rift Valley of East Africa
comprising few lakes of this region.
A rift valley may also be formed by upliftment of two blocks along the fault line.
These uplifted blocks are called horsts or block mountains. The well-known examples of horsts
are the Vosges and the Black forest mountains on both sides of Rhine rift valley and the Plateaus
of Palestine and Trans Jordan.
Types of Faults
Although structural geologists recognize more than a dozen kinds of faults, they
can be generalized into four principal types on the basis of direction and angle of movement.
Two types involve displacement that is mostly vertical, a third encompasses only horizontal
movement, and the fourth includes both horizontal and vertical offsets.

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2. Sudden Movements:
These movements cause considerable deformation over a short spans of time, and may be of two
types:
(I) Earthquake:
It occurs when the surplus accumulated stress in rocks in the earth‘s interior is
relieved through the weak zones over the earth‘s surface in form of kinetic energy of wave
motion causing vibrations (at times devastating) on the earth‘s surface. Such movements may
result in uplift in coastal areas.
Another earthquake in Chile (1822) caused one-meter uplift in coastal areas.

Another earthquake in New Zealand (1885) caused an uplift of upto 3 meters in some areas while
some areas in Japan (1891) subsided by 6 meters after an earthquake.
Earthquakes may cause change in contours, change in river courses, ‗tsunamis‘ (seismic waves
created in sea by an earthquake, as they are called in Japan) which may cause shoreline changes,
spectacular glacial surges (as in Alaska), landslides, soil creeps, mass wasting etc.

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(ii) Volcanoes
A volcano is formed when the molten magma in the earth‘s interior escapes
through the crust by vents and fissures in the crust, accompanied by steam, gases (hydrogen
sulphide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide etc.) and pyroclastic material.
Depending on chemical composition and viscosity of the lava, a volcano may take various forms.
(a) Conical or Central Type:
When cooled lava particles from successive volcanic eruptions form a cone
around the vent, a conical mountain shape emerges. This is a central type of volcano. Examples:
Fujiyama (Japan) and Mount Vesuvius (Italy). The magma in such volcanoes is viscous, acidic
and silicate.
(b) Shield Type:
The less viscous, less acidic and less silicate magma flows out slowly and quietly
and gives rise to a wide-based plateau like formation with a gentle slope. Thus, a ‗shield shaped‘
volcano with thin horizontal sheets emerges. Example: Mauna Loa (Hawaii).
(c) Fissure Type:
Sometimes, a very thin magma escapes through cracks and fissures in the earth‘s
surface and flows after intervals for a long time, spreading over a vast area, finally producing a
layered, undulating, flat surface. Example: Deccan traps (peninsular India)
(d) Caldera Lake:
After the eruption of magma has ceased, the crater frequently turns into a lake at a
later time. This lake is called a ‗caldera‘. Examples: Aira in Japan, Alban in Italy and Krakatao
in Indonesia.
Volcanic Landforms:
The intrusive activity of volcanoes gives rise to various forms.

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Batholiths: These are large rock masses formed due to cooling down and solidification of hot
magma inside the earth. Batholiths form the core of huge mountains and may be exposed on
surface after erosion.
Laccoliths: These are basically intrusive counterparts of an exposed domelike batholith.
Dykes: These are solidified vertical lava layers inside the earth.
Sills: These are solidified horizontal lava layers inside the earth.
Other features created by volcanoes include hot water springs, geysers etc.

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Exogenetic Forces
The exogenetic processes derive their energy from atmosphere determined by the
ultimate energy from the sun and also the gradients created by tectonic factors. All the
exogenic geomorphic processes are covered under a general term, denudation. The word
‗denude‘ means to strip off or to uncover. Weathering, mass wasting/movements, erosion and
transportation are included in denudation.
The flow chart gives the denudation processes and their respective driving forces.
It should become clear from this chart that for each process there exist a distinct driving force or
energy. As there are different climatic regions on the earth‘s surface the exogenetic geomorphic
processes vary from region to region. Temperature and precipitation are the two important
climatic elements that control various processes.
Climatic factors being equal, the intensity of action of exogenic geomorphic
processes depends upon type and structure of rocks. Different types of rocks with differences in
their structure offer varying resistances to various geomorphic processes. And, under varying
climatic conditions, particular rocks may exhibit different degrees of resistance to geomorphic
processes and hence they operate at differential rates and give rise to differences in topography.
The effects of most of the exogenic geomorphic processes are small and slow and may be
imperceptible in a short time span, but will in the long run affect the rocks severely due to
continued fatigue.

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Weathering:
Weathering may be defined as the disintegration or decomposition of rock in
place. It is really a name for a group of processes which act collectively at and near the earth’s
surface and reduce rock masses to the clastic state. It is a static process and does not involve the
seizure and removal of material by a transporting agency. - Thornbury
Weathering is the first stage in the denudation (wearing away) of the exposed
landscape. It is a process by which surface and subsurface rocks break up, dissolve, and
decompose. All weathering activity occurs on the spot (in situ). Since Weathering disintegrates,
dissolves, decomposes the rock, it facilities the movement of rock debris by mass wasting. It is a
part of Exogenic process because it directly and indirectly derives required energy from
insolation, which guides systems above the surface of the earth, including the atmosphere.
Weathering is also an important process of earth system because it facilitates in the formation of
mineral and soil development. 60 per cent population of our country is directly and indirectly
dependent on agriculture which is to a great deal dependent on soil.
Weathering Grades:
We can also identify the different weathering grades of rock. Stage wise there are
six grades of weathering. “Weathering grades of rock‖ ranges between fresh weathering grade to
residual soil .The fresh grade exhibits no visible sign of rock material. The slightly weathered
stage is identified by discoloration of rock. When less than 50 per cent rock material is
disintegrated or decomposed in a soil it is called moderately weathered stage in relation to
present grade. In the highly weathered category more than 50 per cent rock material is
disintegrated or decomposed in a soil. In the last and final stage all the rock material is converted
to soil which is known as residual soil.

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It is important to note that the rate of weathering depends on property of parent

rock (mineral solubility and rock structure), climatic conditions (frequency of frost, rainfall,
temperature and length of exposure to sunlight). The presence of organic activity in the soil also
influences the rate of weathering. Weathering processes are largely determined by the climate
and vegetation of a place. Dry locations are largely influenced by physical weathering and
moist places by chemical weathering.
In general there are three types of weathering: mechanical, chemical and

biological weathering. Mechanical weathering denotes the breakdown of rock without any
conspicuous degree of chemical change in the minerals of the rock. Chemical weathering
involves the decomposition of rocks in which decay of minerals are recorded. It is important to
note that in real world mechanical and chemical weathering process may operate together though
in differing proportions. Biological processes also contribute to weathering. The biological
weathering is any type of weathering that is caused by living organisms.
Physical Weathering Processes:
The process by which a rock or mineral is broken down into smaller fragments
without apparently altering its chemical composition is called physical weathering. It
transforms rock by breaking it into smaller fragments. This transformation takes place through
mechanical methods such as freeze-thaw, salt weathering and thermal cracking. In the process of
physical weathering the forces which break the rock may also originate within the rock or
mineral, while others may begin from outside the rock or mineral. Both of these stresses lead to
strain and the rupture in the rock but without any conspicuous change in the chemistry of the
rock material. The activity of physical weathering breaks large pieces into smaller ones. The

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broken or detached fragments of rock are called clasts. The action of physical Weathering is
more apparent in deserts, high mountains and arctic regions (Waugh, 1990).
There are several types of Physical Weathering Processes. For example, Frost
wedging is more noticed when accumulated water in a fractured area freezes and creates pressure
in the rock. Diurnal Temperature changes in places like hot deserts may cause rocks to break
apart. Tree-root wedging may also enlarge cracks in rock. Similarly in dry climatic region, salt
crystallization aids to split the rock. The cracks may also develop in the rock mass due to
unloading of deeply buried rock by erosion of the overlying layers and consequent isostatic
expansion of rock mass.
Freezing, Thawing and Frost shattering:
Generally most substance expands when they are heated and they also contract
when they are cooled down. But water is an exceptional wonder molecule unlike any other
substance which expands when it freezes. The total expansion of water is about 9 per cent in
volume at 0°C, and further to 13.5 per cent at -22°C. It is also noteworthy that this expansion is
also responsible for the bursting of water pipes in the polar and sub-polar regions. The water in
the form of ice crystals can generate very strong cryostatic pressure (Outcome of weight and
thickness of the ice) of 2100 kg cm-2 against the hollow cracks, crevices and joints in the rock.
In cold climatic region rocks contain small cracks, which are sometimes filled with water during
the day time or in summer season. Water in these cracks expands as it freezes. If cryostatic
pressure exceeds the tensile strength of the rock, the rock breaks. This entire mechanical process
is known as frost action or frost shattering.
Frost shattering is one of the most effective processes in the polar and sub polar
region. Frost shattering creates widespread disintegration of the rock along its prearranged
structural weakness present in the rock. Frost shattering is most effective in rocks containing
numerous fractures or bedding planes (Thornbury, 1993). The block disintegration on steep
hilly slope ultimately produces scree and talus at the foot of the hill. In areas having gentle slope
the frost shattering produces bulky blockfiled which is also known felsenmeer (German
meaning 'sea of rock') and everest. Blockfileds look like sea or streams of angular rocks. But
they are different from screes and talus.
Blockfields

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Expansion resulting from Unloading
The release in pressure in the rock can cause physical weathering. It happens due
to removal of overlying material by erosion. This process is known as unloading. In this process
the rocks isostatically and elastically compensate for the erosional loss of mass by expanding
perpendicular to the direction of pressure release. This unloading of pressure causes the rocks to
fracture horizontally. The number of fractures increases as the rock approaches the Earth's
surface due to unloading process. The horizontally arranged fractures are also called sheet
fracture or sheeting. In Italian Alps region many sheet fractures have developed after Pleistocene
glaciations which are attributed to isostatic rebound. The weathering of granitic monolithic rock
due to Unloading and Expansion in Bhuvangiri town (Andhra Pradesh) has also formed
rounded dome shaped masses called exfoliation domes or onion peeled domes. Many such
domes are also found in the Sierra Nevada range in California in United States, Stone Mountain
in Georgia, and Half Dome in Yosemite National Park.
Thermal Expansion and contraction or Insolation Weathering
In desert regions of the world the large diurnal temperature changes are mainly
responsible for mechanical weathering. We know that the rocks are composed of many mineral
suites having varying physical property in terms of absorption, conductivity, and retention of
heat. These unique properties of rock result in differential rates of expansion and contraction
of rock mass. The surface of the rock expands more than its interior part, and this expansive
stress ruptures the rock. The variation in the colours of mineral grains present in rock may also
cause differential expansion and contraction of rock mass in terms of its volume. It is also
important to note that the dark coloured grains, because of their absorptive properties, will
expand much more than light coloured grains. Therefore ultimately the rock disintegrates along
the boundary of mineral grains. This process is also known as insolation weathering. In desert
environment the moisture in form of dew creates cycle of hydration and dehydration of minerals
which ultimately weakens the rock fractures for insolation weathering.

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Crystallization of Salts:
Salt weathering represents mechanical weathering of rock because no conspicuous

chemical alteration of rock constituents is involved in this process. The saline water found in
pore spaces evaporates during the high temperature i.e., during the day time or in dry conditions.
It leaves behind the salt crystals in the rock‘s small opening. The expanding salt crystals exert a
pressure on the walls of the host rock pores that exceeds the tensile strength (The ability of a
material to withstand tension) of the rock. This process of falling off of individual grains may
result in granular disintegration or granular foliation of rock generally effective in coarse
crystalline igneous rocks. The magnitude of this stress, however, varies with the composition and
concentration of ionic species, and the manner of crystallization at and within the impacted
surfaces (Smith, 1994). Sodium chloride and gypsum crystals in desert areas lift overlying layers
of materials which results in cracks in host rock. With salt crystal growth, chalk breaks down
most readily, followed by limestone, sandstone, shale, gneiss and granite. For example, the
capillary salts, including nitrates and nitrites, have caused extensive scaling, crumbling, and
discoloration of the outer and inner building materials of the Islamic monuments of Khiva and
Bukhara in Uzbekistan.

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Chemical weathering Processes:
Chemical weathering decomposes the rock and creates a new chemically

different material that has undergone weathering. The tendency of the minerals to strive for
equilibrium with the environment is called chemical weathering (Sharma, 2010). In general, it is
probably true that chemical weathering is more important than physical weathering ((Thornbury,
1993).) Several chemical reactions occur in the Earth-surface environment. In order to
understand chemical weathering we need to know the 'raw materials' for chemical reaction found
in the rocks found on the earth and Earth-surface environment. The main agents involved in
chemical weathering are as follows:
 Oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases from the atmosphere;

 Water from precipitation in the form of rain and snow; and
 Minerals present in the rock composition.
Rocks can be composed of a single type of element, or more than one element.
These composite substances are known as minerals. Minerals are chemical substances found in
the rock. It is important to note that, internal structure of minerals is the main factor, which
controls all sorts of chemical and physical properties of any rock. The strength of the bond
largely determines chemical alteration of minerals through chemical reaction.
During chemical weathering, the internal molecular structure of a mineral is

altered by reaction with other elements. For example, dissolved oxygen in water has potential to
oxidize minerals that contain iron; this process is known as oxidation. Similarly, Carbon
dioxide dissolved in water forms creates carbonic acid that can effectively dilute limestone or
change the feldspar in granite into clay minerals. This process is known as carbonation. In
hydrolysis process pure water can also combines with some minerals to form new by-products.
Water may also soften some minerals through its dissolving capability (solution).
Salient types of chemical weathering are as follows:
Oxidation and Reduction
In chemistry oxidation does not necessarily imply oxygen, but simply the loss of
electrons. It involves a chemical reaction with oxygen. Conspicuous example can be given from
rusting of a mineral. In Earth-surface environment, the element that is most prone to oxidation is
iron (Fe). Most of the minerals found in igneous and metamorphic rocks contain Fe2+ ions
which react with the oxygen. The signs of oxidation can be noticed in shallow water bodies and
aquifers carrying organic matter.

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Solution
Solution is generally the first stage of chemical weathering. It can take place in a
thin film of water around a solid particle or in running water. A solution is a homogeneous
mixture in which one substance called the solute is dispersed in another substance called the
solvent. The solutions are everywhere around us. The Ocean is also a solution, consisting of
many salts such as sodium chloride dissolved in water. The Pure water is also an effective agent
in dissolving some minerals. The water can dissolve soluble rock-forming minerals and break
down the molecular structure of certain minerals. The dissolved salt may also form salt
crystals to facilitate physical withering mechanism indirectly. Solution tends to be most effective
in areas that have hot humid climates.
Soil Collides may have the power to loosen or pull off small bits of rock from the surfaces with
which they come in contact. This weathering process of uncertain importance is called collide
plucking. (Thornbury, 1993)
Carbonation
Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals. The

formation of carbonates usually takes place as a result of other chemical processes. The
atmosphere contains carbon dioxide (CO2). When rain falls, water and carbon dioxide combine
(CO2 + H2O = H2CO3) and forms carbonic acid that is H2CO3, which in turn helps in
dissolving minerals, particularly those susceptible to weak acids, such as calcite, dolomite, and
marble. Carbonation is especially active when the reaction environment is abundant with carbon
dioxide. The carbonation process is especially active in karst regions of the world. The
solubility of karst relies on the volume of carbon dioxide stored in karst systems.
Hydration
Hydration actually denotes addition of water to a mineral. It denotes chemical
combination of water molecule with other mineral substances. According to Petersen et.al (2011)
in weathering by hydration, water molecules attach to the crystalline structure of a mineral
without causing a permanent change in that mineral‘s composition. The water molecules are able
to join and leave the ―host‖ mineral during hydration and dehydration, respectively. In many

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situations the H+ and OH ions (An atom, molecule or compound that carries either a positive or
negative electrical charge) become a structural part of the crystal lattice or network of the
mineral. The hydrated minerals expand many times the volume of their original state which
creates mechanical stress in rock to disintegrate. The cycle of hydration and dehydration in
minerals further boosts the stress mechanism eventually breaks the rock. Hydration also
accelerates decomposition reactions by expanding the crystal lattice (network), which in turns
creates more surface area for further reaction and extra surface area for physical weathering.
Iron oxide, for example can absorb water and turn into hydrated iron oxides or iron hydroxide.
Biological Activity and Weathering:
The word ‗bio‘ means life. Thus biological weathering is any type of weathering that is caused
by living organisms. The biological weathering has common characteristics of both physical and
chemical groups of activities in disintegration and decomposition of rock.
Role of plants and animals:
For example, Plant roots penetrate into cracks in rock and slowly break the rocks
apart mechanically. The roots of the plant also secrete certain chemicals to extract minerals,
thereby causing chemical weathering. The major weathering agents produced by plants include
CO2, organic acids, and ligands. The chelation is an important biochemical process generally
occurs in the roots of the plant. The chelation breaks down the mineral structure by dissolving
and dislocating metallic and non-metallic minerals which in turn reduces the toxicity in natural
ecosystem. The specific process or set of plant related weathering positive feedback processes
may increase weathering, whereas negative (-) feedbacks are likely to decrease weathering. The
growth of plants on the upper portion of the historical Bharateswara temple has deteriorated the
condition of the temple.
Animals and insects that den/nest/cave into soft rocks are also mechanical
weathering agents. The earthworms are found in most of the moist parts of the world with the
exception of extreme temperatures. They till, aerate and decompose the soil minerals. Similarly,
termites and ants found in loose minerals of the soil are responsible for underground
constructions. Many animals in the world dig up the earth for a variety of reasons: to dig up

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food, either floral or faunal; to cache provisions; and to excavate habitations. All above
mentioned activities help in exposing the new surfaces to chemical attack.
Anthropogenic activity:
One of the most effective agents of biological weathering in the present time is
the human beings. Mining and quarrying, highway construction projects and excavations for
building foundations and basements all lead to significant weathering of the surface of the earth.
Significance of Weathering
Weathering is an important mechanism which weakens surface materials. This

process is in turn is helpful for their eventual removal of material by erosion processes. It
contributes to the formation of soil by providing mineral particles like sand, silt, and clay. The
weathered rock fragments in the form of deposits make fertile plains, beaches and sand dunes.
The weathering of minerals (from rocks) is of great importance for the economy of any country.
The minerals created by weathering processes supply nutrients for plant uptake. Weathering
liberates chemical compounds which are directly and indirectly helpful to suppress toxics
created in the biosphere. Therefore, weathering is a process that is essential to many other
aspects of the hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere.
Mass Wasting:
The surface of the earth is everywhere attacked by forces that lead to
decomposition and disintegration of rocks. The layer of waste this produces is called regolith. It
is unconsolidated matter, and a mixture of rock pieces and fine soil. Lying on a sloping surface,
regolith is pulled by the earth‘s gravitational force and moves down. This down-slope movement
of weathered material under the influence of gravitational influence is defined as ‗Mass wasting‘,
also termed ‗Mass movement‘. Sometimes mass wasting may also involve intact rock beds. The
process has a variety of rates and mechanics of movement; involves particles ranging from
minute fine clay to massive rock beds; leads to impacts ranging from insignificant events to large
scale disaster, and results in creation of various landforms.
According to A. S. Goudie – ―A mass movement is the downward and outward

movement of slope-forming material under the influence of gravity.
Mechanics of Mass wasting:
Basically it is gravity, which is analyzed into two main components that together control
movement of regolith on all slopes. These are:
 Slide component, also called stress;

 Stick component, also called friction or shear resistance.

21
1. Slide component works in the downslope direction and pulls the rock mass towards foot
of a slope, this leads to ‗stress‘ or tension between the solid unweathered rock surface and
the unconsolidated regolith lying on it. It also exerts stress along bedding planes, joints,
crevasses and fractures within a solid rock body. Even the mineral grains within a rock
respond to this stress, and internal stress is experienced by the matter.
2. Stick component works in a direction perpendicular to the slope and creates friction
between regolith and slope and at all the other sites that are under stress, mentioned
above. The friction created by stick component counteracts the downward pull. Whether
a mass would move or not is decided by the critical balance between these forces, which
in turn depends primarily on the steepness of slope.
‗Factor of safety‘ Fs = shear resistance / magnitude of stress
If the value of Fs is 1.0 or more, it indicates that gravity will not be able to move rock debris
unless some other factor supports it. If Fs has a value less than 1.0 it indicates that slope is
vulnerable to mass wasting. Besides many other factors, the balance between stress and shear
resistance depends largely on steepness of slope. The rate and nature of the final movement may
be influenced by several other factors that play an important role in the mass-wasting process.
Modes of movement in mass wasting:
Once a mass of regolith is displaced by gravity the weathered material may follow different
modes of movements downhill.
M. A. Carson and M. J. Kirkby consider three of them most important:

22
1. Slide,
2. Flow, and
3. Heave
Slide
In slide movement, motion is maximized along the base of the moving mass.
There is a clear and easy to identify surface dividing the mobile upper layer and the intact, stable
lower zone. This separating plane is called the shear plane. Usually, the top of the mobile surface
is able to keep pace with the rate of motion along the base, but sometimes it may lag behind.
Slide can take place in absolutely dry matter, hence it can happen anywhere. However, presence
of water facilitates it and induces greater speed.
Flow
In flow mode, material above the shear plane accelerates to the maximum speed at
the top, while rate of movement diminishes with increasing depth till it reaches zero along the
shear plane. This differential rate of movement within a mass is caused by increasing friction
towards the contact zone between regolith and stable rock surface. In this mode water is an
essential component of the process. As such it is a feature of humid regions.
Heave
This type of mechanism can move any particle size from a fine clay grain to a
large boulder. The rate is mostly very slow and actual movement imperceptible unless it is
measured using sophisticated methods. The ultimate result of change in position of matter can be
seen and is taken as evidence of mass wasting activity. In this mode of movement regolith
alternatively experiences swelling or expansion, and shrinking or contraction. Expansion may be
a result of moisture absorption, heating or ice crystal formation. As water changes into ice there
is about 10% increase in volume of moisture within regolith, causing an upward push.
Contraction happens when a moist particle dries up, hot surface cools off or ice crystals melt and
convert into liquid. During these expansion-contractions cycle particles rise upwards
perpendicular to the original surface as they expand and settle down vertically while contraction
compels downward movement. Thus as shown in figure a particle originally at point 1 would
gradually shift to 2-3-4….till it reaches point 7 at the foot of the slope.

23
Besides these three modes, sub-varieties of mass wasting may be induced by

factors like shape of shear plane and presence of vegetation or boulder obstruction. Examples
involving curved and rectilinear shear planes may be given here. Rock debris moving on
curvilinear shear plane shows a tendency of difference in velocities at their base and top; mostly
speed increases with depth. The resulting mass wasting has a characteristic backward rotation.
On the other hand a rectilinear shear plane exhibits equal rate of movement throughout the mass
Angle of repose
All loose particles can stabilize in a pile at a certain maximum angle of steepness. Any increase
in steepness induces slipping of the particles. Angle of repose plays a crucial role in talus and
scree cone development.
Factors controlling mass wasting:
There are several natural and anthropogenic factors that regulate initiation, rate and type of mass
wasting. Different views have been expressed in this regard. For example Sharpe (Table-I)
groups the controlling factors into:
 Passive and
 Active
Table-I
Causes of Mass Wasting:

24
This classification focuses mostly on inherent characteristics of regolith and its

environment. Others (D. J. Varnes 1978) have classified causes of mass wasting with a focus on
the forces working on weathered material. From this viewpoint, on the one hand, there are forces
that enhance the pulling effect of gravity or the slide component. On the other there are
conditions that play a negative role with reference to the stick component, and weaken stability
of matter. When a strong slide force combines with a weak stick force, ideal condition for mass
wasting is created. The two categories of forces are controlled by several supporting factors.
Table- II Factors Affecting Stress and Shear Components
Shear stress & shear Supporting conditions

strength
Removal of lateral or underlying support - erosion by waves or rivers

digging for road construction
Surcharge – increase in load by rainfall, snowfall , water from urban

Factors that increase drainage
shear stress
Transitory earth stress – earthquake, vibration due to traffic
Lateral pressure – water in cracks, freezing of this water, swelling of wet

clay particles
Factors that reduce Weathering – moisture swelling of clay minerals and loss of
shear strength cohesion, removal of soluble cementing mineral out of the rock
Change in inter-grain force – Excess water causing buoyancy and

loss of friction, softening of material
Changes in structure – fissures developed in shale
Organic – Decay of roots, burrowing animals

25
The above two tables make it clear that interaction between several factors leads
to conditions favouring slope failure. Broadly speaking, on the one hand, regolith has some
inherent favourable qualities - it becomes heavy, slippery, non-cohesive and ready to move,
while on the other hand some external factors play a vital role, such as if foothill area supporting
upper slope and stabilizing it is removed, or violent tremors destroy the shear strength and
dislodge weathered material from the slope. Both the categories of such factors lead to the same
result, that is, gravity succeeds in pulling down the weathered surface layer.
Types of Mass wasting:
Different classifications of mass wasting have been suggested, founded on different

bases. Arthur Bloom discusses a ‗Descriptive Classification of Mass Movement’; mode of
movement and nature of weathered material involved are the bases of his classification. Another
classification of mass wasting is suggested by Carson and Kirkby. Their classification takes
into account moisture conditions, along with rate and mechanics of movement of weathered
matter.
The following three mechanisms of movement are the primary basis in this classification of mass
wasting:
 Heave
 Flow and
 Slide
In this classification, the three basic categories replace one another as climatic condition change
from extreme dry to extreme wet moisture regimes. Ultimately mass wasting is replaced by
fluvial processes (warm regions) or glacial processes (cold regions). Particle size involved ranges
here from soil to talus to rocks. Depending on availability of moisture and nature of regolith,
sub-types acquire specific characteristics and are identified as several separate classes of mass
wasting. Thus the three basic mechanisms lead to several subtypes of the process.

26
Solifluction:
It can be translated as ‗soil flow‘. As the name indicates it is a sub-type of flow

movement. In this type surface is covered with water saturated regolith. As water content
increases soil cover changes to a soggy matter and loses cohesive strength. This weakens friction
or stick component, enabling gravity to move the weathered layer on the slope.
Presence of an impervious sub-surface layer and ample soil moisture are vital for
this process. It can happen both in warm and cold climatic regions. In warm regions moisture is
provided by precipitation or surface run off. Here, the sub-surface impervious layer may be a bed
of slate or schist or any other such hard rock. In cold regions water is supplied as melt water
during spring season, when all surface snow and ice starts melting. The impervious sub-surface
layer here is the vast deep frozen ground (permafrost) that neither warms up nor thaws. To
differentiate processes in these two climatic regimes A. L. Washburn (1967) suggested usage of
‗gelifluction’ for the process in cold-climatic regions.
Solifluction/gelifluction is a slow process as compared to the other types. Mostly

it covers extensive areas. The whole of Siberian tundra and Greenland hillsides are an evidence
of its regional scale. Ground influenced by this type of mass wasting is broken into gently
sloping, terrace-like features, which are sometimes bound by vegetative growth.

27
Soil creep:
This type of mass wasting is present almost everywhere on the earth‘s surface,
because first, it requires minimal support from steepness of surface and second, it can involve
any type of debris. Third, it also does not need moisture, hence can happen in all types of
climates. It follows mechanics of heave.
Areas experiencing soil creep show several symptoms that are easy to identify
trees with downward bending lower trunks, tilt in exposed rock beds, broken fences and tilted
electricity poles are some examples.
In mountainous areas, heaps of weathered matter collects at the base of slopes as

talus and scree cones due to soil creep. In these cones, the frontal margin of cone migrates
forward as soil creep continues and cones keep growing in size. Similar to soil creep is rock
creep, which involves large boulders and rock chunks.
Mud flow and earth flow:
The mechanics of earth flow and mud flow are similar to any other flow type of
mass weathering; however, both have certain distinguishing features. Mud flow is large-scale,
channelized movement while earth flow may happen on any surface in a localized manner.
Mud flow is confined to valleys and is a rapid movement. Arid regions have the
most ideal conditions for it. Here seasonal streams cut valleys in mountainous areas. For most of
the year, or sometimes for several years, the valleys stay dry and receive large amount of
weathered debris from slopes. When eventually rains come, they are usually torrential and last
for a short while (a general characteristic of precipitation in hot arid areas). As water is
channelized and moves down the valleys, it keeps on incorporating accumulated rock debris
from the valley floor. Absence of vegetative cover in these regions further supports this process.
This mass has great velocity, erosive and transporting capacity. Movement stops under two

28
conditions only – one, the matter becomes thick in consistency and is no longer fluid; two, flow
reaches flat foothill area. At the terminal point all material brought down is left as a mound or in
a fan shaped feature, called alluvial fan. Eliot Blackwelder (1928) considered mud flow an
important geomorphic agent in arid and semi-arid regions. He explained long distance
transportation of huge rocks in these regions as the work of mud flow.
Slide and slump:
Both these types follow slide mechanics and their rate of movement is fast. For
initial movement presence of water or ice as lubricant is not needed but rate of movement
accelerates if regolith is wet. The distinction between these two is marked by difference in their
shear planes. Slide has a rectilinear shear plane while slump has a concave upward, or spoon-
shaped shear plane. Slide is again classified according to nature of weathered material. Debris
slide, rock slide, mud slide and landslide are some examples.
Landslide is the most devastating, sudden and rapid slide movement. It is capable
of transporting and burying settlements and destroying the ecosystem for a long time. It happens
on slopes that have a combination of all positive stress and negative resistance factors, but the
actual movement begins when it is triggered by some sudden change like heavy rain or
earthquake. Mountains experience most landslides during rainy seasons. Rainwater increases
weight of regolith and also lubricates it. In cold regions snow plays a similar role. Sometimes
frozen rock mass may begin to slide, but as the heat of friction melts ice crystals and water
content increases, the movement transforms into flow type.

29
Concavity of shear plane in slump results in backward tilt of slumping blocks.

The mass also breaks down in blocks and creates a terraced surface. The foot of the slope has a
mound called ‗Toe’. The area from where the movement has started is marked by a steep scar.
Sub marine landslides
 Slump, mud flow and landslides keep happening all along shorelines.
 They carve network of canyons in off shore belts.
 Undersea cables are damaged as sediment travels with great velocity here.
 1929 Grand Banks Earthquake (North East America) caused submarine landslide
displacing 200 km3 sediment and snapped 12 submarine transatlantic telegraph cables
Predicting landslides with acoustics
A new type of sound sensor system has been developed to predict the likelihood of a
landslide.
It consists of a network of sensors buried across the hillside or embankment that presents
a risk of collapse.
The sensors, acting as microphones in the subsoil, record the acoustic activity of the soil.

30
Noise rates, created by inter-particle friction, are proportional to rates of soil movement
and so increased acoustic emissions mean a slope is closer to failure.
Once a certain noise rate is recorded, the system can send a warning, via a text message,
to the authorities responsible for safety in the area.
Debris fall and rock fall:
Velocity in fall type ranks highest among all mass wasting types. Movement in
fall type is vertical or almost vertical, and long cliff faces are an ideal site for it. The motion may
start as slide, but may change to topple and terminate as fall. Slopes that have experienced
glaciation are susceptible to rock falls (Arthur Bloom 1998), because unloading and frost action
separate large rocks from the main slope; later, these blocks may be shaken off by triggers like
earthquake tremors. Falling rock pieces pose danger to lower slopes, especially transport links
and settlements. To manage this risk, rocks have been covered by steel net along the Sion-Panvel
highway.
Subsidence:
This type of mass wasting does not involve a shear plane or horizontal
displacement. Surface layers move almost vertically downwards when they lose support from
beneath. Sub-surface weakness may be caused by several factors, for example:
 Mining,
 Excess withdrawal of underground water,
 Removal of rocks by carbonation in Karst regions,
 Removal of sub-surface fluid lava.

31
Other types:
Besides the above mentioned types of mass wasting, there are other examples with minor
variations in characteristics. Some of these are:
 Avalanche – Any sudden and disastrous landslide may be called avalanche (Bloom
2003). It is a phenomenon of humid regions (Thornbury, 1969). It involves weathered
rock mass, (that may have ice), both slide and flow mechanics, and rapid movement. If a
slope experiences repeated debris avalanche, clear channels are cut, called ‗debris chute‘.
 Rockglide and topple – Large rock blocks are moved if the surface beneath them is
lubricated or is softened to move plastically. The surface blocks simply ride over the
mobile underlying material. Destabilized while gliding, these blocks tend to fall, called
toppling.
 Spreading – This involves multiple blocks. The mechanism of this movement is similar
to rock glide, but it is a lateral movement. Cambering is an example of this type.
Cambering takes place in glacial environment, where sediment moves from hill sides
towards valley, and carries along sedimentary blocks.
 Liquefaction – Solid surface (like sand and clay) is shaken during earthquake tremors
and grain compaction within rock is loosened. This allows clay-rich rocks to behave like
plastic matter, causing a typical spread movement known as ‗liquefaction‘. It can uproot
buildings from their foundations and move them.
Preventing loss due to mass wasting:
Owing to its vast reach and damaging effects, mass wasting forms an
important part of geomorphology, especially applied geomorphology. To prevent social and
economic loss, methods have been developed to observe and collect data on sites that are
threatened by immediate movement.
A world map of landslide susceptibility has been prepared with the help of
satellite images of soil, slope and deforested areas. This is connected to a satellite-aided global
network program ‗Nowcast‘, which is proposed to identify and warn of imminent landslide.
Other local level methods are also developed, for example, ‗Slide Minder‘ is
a Wireline extensometer that can monitor slope displacement and transmit data remotely via
radio or Wi-Fi.

32
Socio and Economic Impact of Mass Movements
Mass movements produce a variety of effects. For example, a landslide may

fall across a river, damming the water and causing it to form a lake. However, landslides can also
suddenly rush down a steep slope can cause great destruction across a wide area of habitable land
and sometimes cause floods by damming up bodies of water. In Alberta, Canada, in 1903, a mass
of about 30.6 million cubic slipped from the top of Turtle Mountain and fell to the floor of the
adjacent valley. The mass of earth and rock spread across a 3.2-km-wide (2-mi-wide) valley,
annihilating the town of Frank and killing 70 people.
Similar landslides have occurred in other high mountains, such as the Rocky
Mountains, the Alps, and the Himalaya. In Portuguese Bend about 156 houses have been torn
apart or moved to another area because of the movement of the land. Slurry can flow rapidly
down slopes or through\ channels, and can strike with little or no warning at avalanche speeds. It
can travel several miles from its source, growing in size as it picks up trees, cars, and other
materials along the way.
Expenses related to landslides include actual damages to structures or

property, as well as loss of tax revenues on devalued properties, reduced real estate values in
landslide prone areas, loss of productivity of agricultural lands affected by landslides, and loss of
industrial productivity because of interruption of transportation systems by landslides. All type
of mass movements is harmful. The slow movement of creep does more long term economic
damage to railroads, building structure and underground pipes.

33
EROSION AND DEPOSITION
Erosion involves acquisition and transportation of rock debris. When massive

rocks break into smaller fragments through weathering and any other process, erosional
geomorphic agents like running water, groundwater, glaciers, wind and waves remove and
transport it to other places depending upon the dynamics of each of these agents.
By erosion, relief degrades, i.e., the landscape is worn down. That means, though
weathering aids erosion it is not a pre-condition for erosion to take place. Weathering, mass-
wasting and erosion are degradational processes. It is erosion that is largely responsible for
continuous changes that the earth‘s surface is undergoing. The energy available to perform work
will depend on the mass of the material and the velocity with which it is moving.
Deposition is a consequence of erosion. The erosional agents lose their velocity

and hence energy on gentler slopes and the materials carried by them start to settle themselves.
In other words, deposition is not actually the work of any agent. The coarser materials get
deposited first and finer ones later. By deposition depressions get filled up. The same erosional
agents‘ viz., running water, glaciers, wind, waves and groundwater act as aggradational or
depositional agents also.
Cymatogenic Movements
Geomorphic processes both exogenetic and endogenetic use earth‘s internal
energy as the source or power. These in turn are the base for the formation of all the landforms
on the earth. The atmosphere or the climate further modifies these landforms. Atmosphere and
climate acquire energy from the sun. Hence the landforms are not the result of just one force
but it is the result of extremely complex system of processes derives from interaction of earth
material resistance on the one hand and tectonically-and climatically derived forces on the
other.

34
Endogenetic processes which emanate from within the earth‘s crust and include
crustal or non-isostatic warping within the mantle (epeirogenesis), earthquakes, folding
(orogenesis), faulting, metamorphism due to heat flow and volcanism.
In 1959, L. C. king introduced the concept of cymatogency, whereby a

landscape, often hundreds of kilometers wide, is either arched or domed to thousands of meters
with minimum rock deformation. According to king, modern mountain ranges are usually
Cymatogenic, not Orogenic, and any local rock deformation is presumed to antedate the simple
cymatogency that, followed by erosion and valley cutting, has created modern day mountain
terrain.

35

Geomorphic Forces and Landforms

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Geomorphic Forces and Landforms

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Geography with Sandeep Sir

Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces

Exogenetic forces/Exogenic/Epigene: Exogenetic is mostly destructive forces, which through

Endogenetic/Endogenic/Hypogene: (In Greek ‗endo‘ means within and ‗genera‘-origin)

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Geomorphic Processes vs. Geomorphic Agents

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 Slow movement (diastrophic) and

Slow movements (diastrophic):

1. Vertical movements (Epeirogenetic/continental building)

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2. Horizontal Movements (Orogenetic/ mountain building)

We can divide them into two types:

(i) Forces of compression, and

Structural geologists recognize many kinds of folds. A monocline is a one-sided

1. Symmetrical folds: both limbs inclined uniformly

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Another earthquake in Chile (1822) caused one-meter uplift in coastal areas.

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(a) Conical or Central Type:

(b) Shield Type:

(c) Fissure Type:

(d) Caldera Lake:

The intrusive activity of volcanoes gives rise to various forms.

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Laccoliths: These are basically intrusive counterparts of an exposed domelike batholith.

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It is important to note that the rate of weathering depends on property of parent

In general there are three types of weathering: mechanical, chemical and

Physical Weathering Processes:

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Freezing, Thawing and Frost shattering:

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Expansion resulting from Unloading

Thermal Expansion and contraction or Insolation Weathering

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Salt weathering represents mechanical weathering of rock because no conspicuous

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Chemical weathering Processes:

Chemical weathering decomposes the rock and creates a new chemically

 Oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases from the atmosphere;

During chemical weathering, the internal molecular structure of a mineral is

Salient types of chemical weathering are as follows:

Oxidation and Reduction

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Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals. The

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Biological Activity and Weathering:

Role of plants and animals:

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Weathering is an important mechanism which weakens surface materials. This

According to A. S. Goudie – ―A mass movement is the downward and outward

Mechanics of Mass wasting:

 Slide component, also called stress;

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‗Factor of safety‘ Fs = shear resistance / magnitude of stress

Modes of movement in mass wasting: