FSTGAT l Geology Department

L3 Geology Fields l
English Course
No: 04
Rock Classifications

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❑ Rocks are compact, semi-hard to hard
mass composed of one or several minerals
and/or mineraloids.

❑ On the basis of their mode of origin, rocks

can be divided into three basic types:

• Igneous
• Sedimentary
• Metamorphic
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ROCK CYCLE The formation cycle of
different types of rock
and the processes
associated with them.
Sedimentary
This is called the rock
Rock cycle.

The rock cycle is

important in any
Metamorphic discussions of
Rock
soil formation,
especially if we
Igneous
Rock know that soils
are nothing but
disintegrated
rocks.
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A. Igneous Rocks
✓ They are those that have solidified from a molten or
partially molten material called Magma or Melt.

✓ Magma has originated well bellow the surface and

ascended towards the surface, and has crystallized
as solid rock either on the surface or deep within
the earth's crust as temperature fell.

✓ The types of igneous rock formed by the cooling of

magma depends on the i) composition of the
magma; ii) the rate of cooling associated with it.
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 Bowen’s Reaction Series
Bowen’s reaction principle—describes the sequence by
which new minerals are formed as magma cools.

Depending on the proportions of minerals available,

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different types of igneous rock are formed.
 Bowen’s Reaction Series
Two series of minerals formed during crystallization of
magma
Temperature of
Isolated

Crystallization Low Silica Magma

Intrus. Extrus.
1200oC
Single
Chain

Gabbro Basalt
1000o
Double
Chain

Diorite Andesite
Sheet

Granite Rhyolite
750o
Frame-
work

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High Silica Magma
Mineralogy of Igneous Rocks
Many different types of minerals occur in igneous
rocks, but only about eight are normally present as
essential constituents of a rock. They are:
•Quartz
•Orthoclase
•Plagioclase
•Muscovite
•Biotite
•Hornblende
•Augite
•Olivine
Which of the eight are present is controlled primarily
by the composition of the magma.
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 Classification of Igneous Rocks
I. Classification based on content of silica

The content of silica (Sio2) in igneous rocks

varies from over 80% to about 40%. Rocks
containing much silica were originally called
ACID, and those with less silica were called
BASIC.

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 Amount
Rock Specific Typical
of Color
composition gravity Rocks
(SiO2)%
Acidic 2.65- Granite light-
>65
(Felsic) 2.72 Rhyolite colored

Andesite Light →
Intermediate 2.87 55-65 dark-
Diorite colored

Basic Basalt dark-

2.9-3.2 45-55
(Mafic) Gabbro colored

Picrite dark-
Ultrabasic 3-3.3 <45
Peridotite colored
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Igneous Rocks Frame- Double Single Iso.
work Sheet Chain Chain
and Silicates

The
Igneous Rock

Mineral Percentage
Classification
parallels
the systematic
Silicate Mineral
Classification

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II. Classification Based on Mode of Occurrence
A. Volcanic or Extrusive Rocks
They are formed when magma reaches the surface,
along either wide vertical fissures or pipe-like
openings in the earth crust.

B. Plutonic or Intrusive Rocks

Those rocks are formed when the magma rise
through the earth’s crust but does not reach the
surface.
Intrusions can be divided into two types:
1. Major Intrusions 2. Minor Intrusions
•Stocks •Dykes
•Batholiths •Sills
•Sheets •Laccolith
11 •phacolith
– Extrusive/Volcanic: Igneous rocks that form due to
the freezing of melts above the surface of the Earth.

Remark: In general Acidic lavas do not flow

from their place of eruption in contrast to
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Basic lavas.
•Intrusive/Plutonic:
Form by freezing of melts below the surface of the
Earth.

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Igneous Intrusions

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 Types of Igneous Intrusions
Discordant: cut across pre-existing fabric of rock layers

Dikes: are small igneous intrusions that cut across

rocks into which the magma intrudes. They are
commonly sheet-like, only a few meters wide, but
possibly laterally extensive.

Stocks: are fairly large (10’s of miles) igneous

intrusions that cut across pre-existing rock layers. In
size, they are on the order of an individual mountain
peak.
Batholiths: are huge igneous intrusions made of many
stocks. Their size is on the scale of an entire mountain
range (100’s of miles).
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 Concordant: follow pre-existing fabric of rock layers without
interruption of layering.
Sills: are also small igneous intrusions. They are
sheets of rock that, unlike dikes, are parallel to pre-
existing rocks. Think of magma invading sedimentary
rocks by spreading out between rock layers. That
magma would cool to form a sill.
Laccoliths: are small intrusions having a flat floor and
doomed roof.
Phacoliths: are small intrusions having both a curved
roof and floor.
Lopoliths: are also large, inverted mushroom-shaped
(spoon-shaped) intrusions that “sag down” in the
middle because of dense rocks.
Xenoliths are blocks of country rocks contained or
16 enclosed into batholith rock.
Igneous Intrusions

Remarks:
➢ Dyke Swarm: is a group of parallel or radiating dykes.

➢ One has to be careful when making site investigation

not to confuse dykes or sills with major intrusions.
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Tabular Intrusions: Plutons

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Non-Tabular Intrusions: Plutons
• Laccolith: a dome-like sill that bends the layers above it
into a dome shape

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 Non-Tabular Intrusions: Plutons
• Pluton: Irregular blob-shaped
discordant intrusions that
range in size from 10’s of m,
to 100’s of km

• Laccolith: a dome-like sill that

bends the layers above it into a
dome shape

• Batholith: A pluton that is > 100 km2

in surface exposure
• Stock: A pluton that is <100 km2 in
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surface exposure
 III. Classification of igneous rocks based on
composition and mode of occurrence

ROCK
COMPOSITION
MODE OF
Acidic Intermediate Basic Ultrabasic
OCCURRENCE
EXTRUSIVE Rhyolite Andesite Basalt Picrite
MINOR Felsite Porphyrite Dolerite
INTRUSIVE Quartz
MAJOR Granite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite
INTRUSIVE

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 Igneous Rock Classification (Summary)

Intrusive (Plutonic)
Extrusive (Volcanic)

Mineral Percentage

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 Classification of igneous rocks (Summary)

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 Igneous Rock Classification
Silicic Intermediate Mafic
Intrusive

Granite Diorite Gabbro

Rhyolite Andesite Basalt
Extrusive

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(Porphyritic)
B. Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are widely spread over the
surface of earth. They constitute about 75% of the
area of the continents.

Development
✓ Weathering reduces the exposed rock mass to
fragmented particles which can be more easily
transported more easily by wind, water, and ice.
✓ When dropped by the agents of transportation,
they are called SEDEMENTS.
✓ Sediments are typically deposited in layers or beds
termed STRATA.
✓ When compacted and cemented together (a
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process called LITHIFICATION), they formed
sedimentary rocks.
✓ The process through which sediments are converted
into sedimentary rocks is called DIAGENSIS. It
includes the following phases:
1. CEMENTATION
Water percolating through the voids (or pores) between
the particles of sediment carries mineral matter which
coats the grain and acts as cement that bind them
together.

2. COMPACTION
The weight of top layers compacts sediments and
expels water out.
3. CRYSTALLIZATION
Sometimes grains of sediments are joined together due
to crystallization of some of their constituents due to
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pressure.
Mineralogy of Sedimentary Rocks
The composition of a given sedimentary rock will
depend on:
• The source of the waste material
• The weathering process (Mechanical vs. Chemical)
• The distance traveled
Minerals from pre-existing rock
•Quartz
•Feldspar
Mineral form in the area of deposition
• Carbonates
• Sulphates
• Iron oxides
• Silica
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Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are classified into two major categories:
I.Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
They formed from minerals or rock fragments derived
from the breakdown of pre-existing rock
Sediment Particle Term Sedimentary Rock
Boulder
Cobble
Gravel Pebble
Conglomerate
granule
Very course sand
Coarse sand
Sand Medium sand Sandstone
Fine sand
Very fine sand
Silt Shale
28 Mud Clay Mudstone
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Conglomerate
This is a rock consists of cemented boulder, cobbles,
pebbles and granules.

Sandstone
This rock is composed essentially of pressure- cemented
grains of sand. The cement agent determines the degree
of indurations, or hardness, of sandstone.

Shale
It is formed from silts and clays which have hardened
into rock, with the principal indurations agent being
pressure.

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 REMARKS
1. Breccia is a variety of conglomerate, which has
angular rather than rounded fragments.

2. When the grains in sandstone are practically all

quartz, the rock is referred to as orthoquartzite.

3. For Sandstone, the three chief kinds of cement, in

the order of their importance are:
•Silica
•Iron oxides
•Carbonates
4. Mudstone has a blocky aspect; whereas, in the case
of shale, the rock is split into platy slabs.
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 5. In mudstone and shale, size of the particles are
generally less than 1/16 mm.

6. Shale is the most abundant of the sedimentary

rocks. Nearly half of all the sedimentary rocks
are shale.

7. Marl is a calcareous mudstone (expansive).

8. From engineering point of view, sedimentary

rocks are the most important and relevant
because:
• They are the most abundant, and hence
encountered.
• They are the most problematic.
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II. Chemical Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rock also can be formed by chemical
processes. Rocks of this type are classified as
chemical sedimentary rock.

Examples of Chemical Sedimentary Rocks:

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Remarks
✓If a carbonate rock contains more than 50% of sand
–sized quartz grains, the rock is termed a
CALCAREOUS SANDSTONE.
✓If it contains more than 50% clay, the rock is termed
a CALCAREOUS SHALE.

✓If It contains more than 50% calcite, the rock is

called LIMESTONE.

✓If It contains more than 50% dolomite, the rock is

called DOLOMITE.
✓The name dolomite is used to designate both a
mineral and a rock. In order to avoid the confusion,
some label the rock DOLOSTONE.
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Textures of Sedimentary Rocks
There are two main types of textures of Sedimentary
Rocks:

1. Clastic Texture
Rocks formed by mechanical weathering have clastic
texture

2. Non-Clastic Texture
Most chemical sedimentary rocks have a non clastic
texture. These rocks have somewhat the same
appearance as igneous rocks with crystalline texture.

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Summary of Sedimentary Rocks

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Features of Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks have several key features.
1. Sorting
Well-sorted versus poorly sorted.
Common examples: Graded Bedding, Cross Bedding

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Features of Sedimentary Rocks (cont.)
2. Stratification
✓ Most sedimentary rocks are layered and the layers
range in thickness from mm to meters.

✓ Such depositional layers are called STRATA, an

individual layer is a STRATUM.

✓ In everyday language, the layers are called BEDS, if

the layer thickness is > 1 cm. if < 1cm they are
called LAMINE.

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3. Roundness of grains

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4. Ripple Marks

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C. Metamorphic Rocks
➢ Metamorphic rocks are formed if a rock is
subjected to increase in temperature, pressure,
or both, to such degree that a new TEXTURE or
possibly a new MINERAL composition is
produced.

➢ The process of change is referred to as

METAMORPHISM. It is derived from the Greek
META which means change and MORPH, shape
or form.

➢ The original rock may be igneous, sedimentary

or metamorphic.
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➢ The origin of metamorphic rocks is the least
clear among the three classes of rocks. Because
no one has ever seen a metamorphic rock been
formed, and for that reason many of our ideas
about them are pure conjecture.

➢ During metamorphism the minerals do not melt,

but remain largely in the solid state.

➢ The metamorphism process is isothermal

process, i.e. the overall chemical composition of
the rock is nearly the same before and after
recrystallization.

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Classes of Metamorphism
There are three broad classes of metamorphism
depending on the control exercised by temperature
and pressure.
1. Thermal or Contact Metamorphism
Increased temperature is the dominant agent
producing change. (Caused by igneous activity)
2. Dynamic or Dislocation Metamorphism
The dominant control is stress, extra heat is
relatively unimportant. (Associated with faults &
earthquake zones)
3. Regional Metamorphism
Both temperature and pressure have operated over
a large (regional) area. (Associated with tectonic
43 plate activity).
➢ The degree of metamorphism is related to the
conditions of temperature and pressure under
which the new metamorphic rock has formed, and
may be assessed by the appearance of certain
minerals.
➢ The index minerals each of which indicates a
particular temperature and pressure at the time it
formed are used to define the metamorphic GRADE
of the rock in which they occur.

➢ One important characteristic related to the

metamorphic grade is that grain size gets coarser
with higher grade, i.e. rocks formed at higher
temperature have coarse grained particle like
GNEISS, and vise versa.
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Some metamorphic rocks and their original rocks

Metamorphic
Original Rock
Rock
Mudstone, Shale Slate
Sedimentary
Sandstone Quartzite
rocks
Limestone Marble
Dolerite Hornblende
Igneous Diabase Biotite
Rocks Augite&Chlorite Plagioclase
Gabbro Granulites

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CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
I. Classification Based on Type of Metamorphism
1. Contact Metamorphic Rocks
2. Dynamic Metamorphic Rocks
3. Regional Metamorphic Rocks
II. Classification According to Degree of Foliation (Textures)
Well- Moderately Non-
Foliated Foliated Foliated
Slate Gneiss Quartzite
Phyllite Migmatite Marble
Schist Granulite Hornfels
Mylonite Serpentine

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Amphiblite
Foliated
•Rock has distinct banding or
layering
•Formed under direct pressure

Non-Foliated
•No distinct layering character
•Formed under uniform pressure

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 Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

slate phyllite

schist
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gneiss
iii. Classification of metamorphic rocks according to
metamorphic grade

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 iv. Classification of Metamorphic Rocks based
on their Composition

1. Monomineralic
Metamorphic rock composed predominantly of
single mineral
For example, Marble: calcite and Quartzite: quartz

2. Multimineralic
Metamorphic rock composed predominantly of two
or more minerals
For example, Gneisses: felsic and darker mineral
layers

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 Classifications of Rock Masses for
Engineering Purposes
1. We can say in summary that classification in
general provides:

✓A language of communication between engineers

✓ A basis for understanding the characteristics of

each rock mass class

✓ Quantitative data and guidelines for engineering

design

✓ Relate the experience of rock conditions at one site

to the conditions and experience at other.
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2. Rock Mass Property and Classification

Rock mass is a matrix consisting of rock material and

rock discontinuities. Properties of rock mass therefore
are governed by the parameters of i) rock joints and ii)
rock material, as well as iii) boundary conditions.
Prime parameters governing rock mass property

3. Rock Mass Classification Systems (See Distributed Table).

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