Diagenesis

Obtaining a sedimentary rock is done by transforming a sediment into rock under the effect of
the processes of diagenesis. Diagenesis includes all chemical and mechanical processes that
affect sediment deposition after formation. Diagenesis begins on the seabed, in the case of a
marine sediment, and continues throughout its burial, that is to say, as other sediments come to
cover the deposit and bring it gradually under several tens, hundreds or even thousands of meters
of material. The processes of diagenesis are varied and complex: they go from the compaction of
the sediment to its cementation, passing through phases of dissolution, recrystallization or
replacement of certain minerals. The diagenetic process that is primarily responsible for the
passage of sediment to rock is cementation. This is a relatively simple process: if the water
circulating in a sediment, for example a sand, is supersaturated with respect to certain minerals, it
precipitates these minerals in the pores of the sand, which weld together the sand particles; we
then obtain a sedimentary rock called sandstone. The degree of cementation may be weak, and
then we have friable rock, or it can be strong, and we have a very solid rock. Cementation can
very well be done on the seabed (early diagenesis), but it is also possible that it is necessary to
wait until the sediment is buried under several hundred or even a few thousand meters of
material (late diagenesis).

The induration (cementation) of a sediment can be done early in its diagenetic history, before the
stacking of several meters of sediment (pre-compaction), or later, when the pressure on the
particles is high due to the stacking of sediments.

In the case of pre-compaction cementation (top diagram), the fluids circulating in the sediment
precipitate chemicals that weld the particles together. Example: the calcite which precipitates on
the particles of a sand and which ends up welding them together. The compaction of a sediment
(bottom diagram) can lead to its cementation. Thus, the high pressure exerted at the points of
contact between the quartz particles of a sand causes a local dissolution of the quartz, a
supersaturation of the ambient fluids with respect to the silica and a precipitation of silica on the
walls of the particles cementing the latter together.

Diagenesis and catagenesis are often distinguished.

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 • Diagenesis includes transformations occurring at a temperature below 60° C (this
temperature being reached at varying depths depending on the value of the geothermal
gradient which is normally 3° C/100 m).
• Catagenesis is characterized by the dominant action of temperature and includes
transformations occurring at temperatures above 60° C. This is the stage before
metamorphism.

Principal minerals of sedimentary rocks

The principal minerals of the sedimentary rocks are: Calcite, dolomite, clay, silica, silicates,
micas, chlorides and sulphates.

Classification of sedimentary rocks

There are different ways to classify sedimentary rocks. The two most used systems are based on
their genesis and chemical composition.

According to their genesis, we distinguish:

• Terrigenous detritic rocks (or clastic rocks) formed from pre-existing rock elements. In
this category, the grain size is specified: rudites, arenites and lutites are distinguished.
• Chemical rocks formed by precipitation of substances in solution in the water
(sedimentation).
• Biochemical or organic rocks formed by the accumulation of dead organisms or the
activity of living organisms.
According to their chemical composition, the following main groups can be distinguished:
• siliceous rocks (sand and sandstone),
• alumino-siliceous rocks (clay rocks),
• carbonate rocks (limestone and dolomite),
• saline rocks or evaporites (salt, gypsum and anhydrite),
• carbonaceous rocks (coals and kerogens), iron rocks, phosphatic rocks, etc.

We will use the classification based on the chemical composition. Classifying a sedimentary rock
by considering its origin can be complex.

The clay rocks alone account for more than 80% of the sedimentary rocks. This percentage
reflects the average composition of the lithosphere. The siliceous and carbonate rocks are in a
range of 5 to 10%. The remaining rocks (evaporites, carbon rocks, etc.) represent only a few% of
the sedimentary rocks.

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1. Siliceous rocks

These are rocks formed mainly of silica (quartz). They are usually hard (they scratch glass and
steel) and are acid resistant. We will distinguish siliceous rocks of terrigenous detrital origin
from non-detrital rocks (chemical and organic).

Main types: Siliceous sandstone – chert - Millstone "Meulières".

a) Terrigenous detritic rocks

They form the majority of siliceous rocks. They are all rocks formed by the accumulation of
debris snatched by erosion, transported over varying distances and deposited in sedimentation
zones. They can be loose or consolidated.

They belong mainly to the class of arenites: they are the sands when the rock is loose and the
sandstones when it is consolidated. There are also rocks with elements smaller than 62.5 μm in
size: they are silts (loose rock) and siltstones (consolidated rock).

The arenites: sand and sandstone

The grains consist essentially of quartz, which is the mineral most resistant to erosion. Feldspars
and micas may be present.
The binder is composed of the "lutite" phase consisting mainly of clay minerals.

The lutites: silts and siltstones

They are composed of very fine elements (less than 62.5 μm) that can not be discerned with the
naked eye.
The size of the elements is the most apparent architectural character of the detrital rocks, and
forms the basis of the classification system.

Loose detritic rocks:

No cement joins the elements together, the rocks have not undergone diagenesis. The
classification of these rocks can be done according to: the size of the elements, the nature of their
constituents, their mode of transport.

Consolidated detrital rocks:

The detrital elements are connected to each other by a cement of varied nature. For the study of
these rocks, we must consider separately:

- The elements: size and nature. This is true also for loose detrital rocks.
- Cement: limestone, siliceous, clay or sandstone.

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- Conglomerates:

The elements are greater than 2mm. There are two types: breccias and pudding stones.

- Sandstone :

Detrital elements are sands (size of elements from 2mm to 0.02mm).

The fundamental fraction consists of quartz and, in general, has a rough feel. Sandstones are
classified according to the nature of their cement:

- Sandstone with limestone cement:

Deposition of contemporary sand grains, in the precipitation of calcium carbonate, by
chemical means. The most common type is the molasse, more or less consistent sandstone,
hardening in the air, used for this in the construction. This sandstone makes effervescence
with acid.
- Siliceous sandstone:
No effervescence with acid. These are sands cemented by silica.

-Arkose :
The alteration of the granite releases quartz grains and altered feldspars constituting a residual
sediment: feldspathic sand. This sediment can then be consolidated by a siliceous cement.

- Grass quartzite and Quartzite sandstone:

They are rocks that remain porous and friable.

-Quartzites :
Extremely tanacious rocks with virtually no porosity. They have a smooth break and fat luster.

b) Non-detrital siliceous rocks

These are rocks essentially made of silica. These rocks are not efferevescent with acids. They
have a dual deposit mode:
- chemical precipitation of silica from rock weathering.
- Accumulation of siliceous skeletons, animals or plants.

The main mineralogical elements are opal and quartz. The silica can be dissolved and transported
in this form, it is found in all waters in variable proportion.
There are rocks of chemical origin and of biochemical origin.

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Siliceous rocks of chemical origin

Precipitation of the silica in any mineralogical form gives rise to very hard rocks often finely
bedded, likely to reach several meters thick, forming the silexites or cherts.

In limestones, there are local concentrations of silica:

• chert: a siliceous body that develops in a limestone environment. Its luster is fat. The
breaks are smooth and take any form. It is used as a building stone.
• millstones are formed by a silicified network in some lacustrine limestones.
They are light, with low resistance to crushing, it is still used as a building stone, and it is
not used in aggregates.

A characteristic common to these rocks is their hardness.

Siliceous rocks of biochemical origin

Diatomites and spongolites are siliceous rocks of organic origin formed by the accumulation of
skeletal elements of marine organisms.

2. Alumino-siliceous rocks

These are the terrigenous detritic rocks closest to the average composition of the lithosphere and
by far the most abundant.

They are divided into three categories corresponding to the three granulometric classes, with a
clear domination of clays (dominant mineral: clay).
Main types : -Marls.
-Clay and shale (argillites): soft rocks, little or not permeable, not usable
in building materials, difficult drainage, source of ground landslides.

a ) Alumino-siliceous Rudites

Most detrital rocks with large elements refer mainly to this group, with silicate rock pebbles
being more common than limestone or quartzite pebbles. Pebbles are mostly pieces of rock,
isolated minerals are rare. The loose rudites and especially consolidated form conglomerates. We
distinguish according to the shape of the pebbles:
• breccias with angular elements,
• pudding stones with rounded elements.

The observation of the shape of the pebbles and their state of deterioration, their arrangement and
their orientation in space, provide information concerning the deposition medium. The
determination of the rocks which make up the conglomerates sometimes makes it possible to
establish their origin.

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