Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tifs

Review

Channelling eggshell waste to valuable and utilizable products: A

comprehensive review
Marium Waheed a, Muhammad Yousaf b, Aamir Shehzad c, Muhammad Inam-Ur-Raheem a,
Muhammad Kashif Iqbal Khan a, Moazzam Rafiq Khan a, **, Naveed Ahmad d, Abdullah e,
Rana Muhammad Aadil a, *
a
National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan
b
Institute of Animal and Dairy Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan
c
UniLaSalle, Univ. Artois, EA7519 - Transformations & Agro-ressources, Normandie Université, F-76130, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France
d
Multan College of Food and Nutrition Sciences, Multan Medical and Dental College, Multan, Pakistan
e
College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Background: Owing to increased egg consumption globally, a corresponding surge of about 18% in egg pro­
Eggshell duction has been recorded during the last decade as reported by WATT Global Media’s Executive Guide to World
Waste utilization Poultry Trends. Up till 2017, global egg production has hit 80-million metric-ton mark with China, USA and
Pharmaceutical industry
India, being the leading egg-producing countries contributing their share of 458, 109 and 95 billion eggs per
Supplements
Medicinal importance
annum, respectively. Global egg production for the year 2018 was 78 million metric tons, contributing
approximately 8.58 million metric ton of eggshells which are being discarded mostly as waste. This calcium-rich
commodity is dumped into landfills, leading to various environmental issues, and therefore should be tackled
properly.
Scope and approach: Eggshells are obtained from egg processing plants, egg stations, chicken hatcheries, in­
dustries and homes in millions of tonnes and can be employed in a myriad of fields. The following review article
provides a brief insight into various applications of eggshells in our society, such as their use in medicinal
supplements, bone graft substitute and denture base. Eggshells can also be employed in constructing floor tiles
and in cement to enhance compressive strength. Other diverse applications of eggshell may include animal feed,
plant fertiliser, batteries, inkjet printers, biodiesel production and removal of heavy metals from soil and water.
Key findings and conclusion: The increasing urbanisation and industrialization with amplified waste generation
have wreaked havoc on our climate; thus, making it necessary to take certain extravagant measures to ensure the
safety and sustainability of our planet.

1. Introduction
The ever-increasing global population requires different resources in
addition to the basic needs of food and residence for survival. Conse­
quently, it has led to increased urbanisation, higher food demand and
hence heightened food waste generation. This problem was further
intensified due to slow development in the field of waste management.
Food waste-being a reservoir of various nutrients can act as a raw ma­
terial for manufacturing various value-added products. Among other
food wastes, eggshells constitute a bulk and what makes this dilemma
even more vexing is the fact that these are a valuable commodity
(Ravindran & Jaiswal, 2016).
In the past few years, with the increase in income and greater dietary
acceptance, higher egg consumption has been observed. This trend is
more noticeable among developing countries as the population has
accepted eggs as being a source of high-quality protein which in turn has
influenced the consumer’s purchasing decision. According to the report
of World Agriculture Supply and Demand Estimates; in the United States
alone, egg consumption is expected to augment from around 7951.8
million dozen in 2019 to over 8000 million dozen in 2020. Per capita

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mrkhan_ft@yahoo.com (M.R. Khan), dilrana89@gmail.com (R.M. Aadil).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.10.009
Received 15 July 2020; Received in revised form 11 September 2020; Accepted 2 October 2020
Available online 7 October 2020
0924-2244/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Waheed et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90

annual egg consumption in the United States is reported to be around Table 1

280 eggs in 2019; thus, marking it to be the highest egg consumption Leading egg producing countries and their estimated eggshell waste.
level over the past 10 years. The United States Department of Agricul­ Country Egg % share in Eggshell References
ture (USDA)projects the consumption statistics to reach up to 8917 production global egg weight (g)
million dozen by 2028 (Conway, 2019a). Some of the countries with the (billion) production
highest annual egg consumption statistics are Japan, Paraguay and China 458 48.94 41.22–54.96 (Ray et al.,
China where individuals consume 320, 309 and 300 eggs respectively United 109 11.65 9.81–13.08 2017; Statista,
(Sawe, 2018). This rise in egg consumption has triggered the corre­ States of 2020)
America
sponding surge in egg production globally e.g. continuing the example India 95 10.15 8.55–11.4
of United States, egg production was recorded to be around 9334 million Mexico 57.4 6.13 5.17–6.89
dozen in 2019 and is expected to reach around 9410 million dozen in Brazil 53 5.66 4.77–6.36
2020 (Conway, 2019b). Russia 44 4.70 3.96–5.28
Japan 43.8 4.68 3.94–5.26
The same scenario is seen globally with egg production expected to
Indonesia 38 4.06 3.42–4.56
stay steady or progress modestly among the major markets around the Turkey 19.6 2.09 1.76–2.35
world (Conway, 2018a). In the past 30 years, egg production has grown Pakistan 18 1.92 1.62–2.16
up by more than 150% and greater progress was noticed in Asia where Total 935.8 99.98 ≈ 100 84.22–112.3
production has expanded by four-folds (FAO, 2020). In India, 30-year
high production yield of around 83 billion eggs was reported in 2016
is an idea worthy of investigation. Though fertilized, unfertilised and
(Conway, 2018b). These large volumes of eggs are exploited at domestic
embryo eggs have been in use since pre-historic times for providing
and industrial levels to manufacture and process foods as a source of
nutrition and for treating a variety of diseases, but the fact should be
nutrition. Higher production of the egg will generate eggshell waste in
kept in mind that eggshells were rather a source of generation of new life
greater quantity which is usually discarded and disposed of in landfills.
and were not primarily meant for human consumption. Provision of
In 2019 China was leading in global eggshell production with 24.8
physical barrier to prevent microorganisms from invading the cell is one
billion kilograms of eggshell and is expected to achieve growth of more
of the important functions of eggshell. Another important role of the
than 35 million metric tons in 2020. Fig. 1 shows the world-leading
eggshell is gaseous exchange owing to the presence of numerous pores
countries generating eggshell waste (Wee, 2019), whereas Table 1 sig­
on its surface (Murakami, Rodrigues, Campos, & Silva, 2007).
nifies the prominent egg-producing countries with their estimated
Eggshells makeup about 9–12% of the total egg weight and consid­
eggshell waste.
ering the chemical aspect of an eggshell, 98% of eggshell comprises of
Eggshell waste has been ranked as the 15th major food industry
dry matter and 2% is composed of water. Dry matter is constituted of
pollution problem by the Environmental Protection Agency. They are
mostly ash (93%) and crude protein (5%). Microscopically, eggshell is
considered as a major source of environmental pollution when not
composed of a network of protein fibres, which in turn are associated
properly dumped off in specified locations, thus causing health hazards
with crystals of calcium, magnesium carbonate and calcium phosphate
later due to fungal growth on these eggshells (Ajala, Eletta, Ajala, &
along with certain other organic substances like water (Polat & Sayan,
Oyeniyi, 2018). Furthermore, non-disposal of waste in an effective way
2020; Waheed et al., 2019; Ray, Barman, Roy, & Singh, 2017; Takiguchi,
becomes critical for the survival of not only humans but also other
Igarashi, Azuma, & Ooshima, 2006). The detailed composition of an
contributors to the eco-system like animals and vegetation. This huge
eggshell is shown in Table 2. The utilization of eggshells in various
amount of waste eggshell produced; is mostly relinquished in the land­
products, ranging from food commodities to products of industrial ap­
fills and these fills have already reached their capacity. Apart from that,
plications, is mainly dependent upon its main component i.e. calcium
many landfill owners avoid eggshells because the protein-rich mem­
carbonate (Ajala et al., 2018). Based on the above discussion, the current
branous part attracts rats and other vermin. Although eggshell is
article aims to provide an insight into various medical, industrial and
regarded as a waste product of the food industry, it should equally be
commercial applications of eggshell.
considered as highly sophisticated composite (Abdulrahman et al.,
2014).
2. Utilization/applications of eggshell calcium
With time, it is becoming increasingly evident that without imme­
diate and drastic actions, the worst climate scenario would be a rule
2.1. Milk tablets supplemented with eggshell powder
rather than the exception (Wheeling, 2019). In this era of ever-growing
endeavours to convert waste to wealth, it is the need of the hour to
Milk tablet is a solid product made up of powdered milk base with at
convert waste into useful commodities for sustainable development. To
least one binding agent and has several advantages like it is easy to
achieve that, the target should be to recycle, reuse and channel the waste
transport and store, has low water content, decent taste, better
product and directing our efforts for manufacturing high-value products.
The effectiveness of converting waste eggshell into useful commodities
Table 2
Composition of eggshell.
Constituents Concentration (%) Reference

Moisture 0.46 Ray et al. (2017)

Protein 3.92
Ash 94.61
Fat 0.35
Calcium 34.12
Magnesium 0.29
Phosphorus 0.04
Potassium 0.03
Sodium 0.05
Copper <1 ppm
Iron 22 ppm
Manganese <1 ppm
Zinc <1 ppm
Fig. 1. Leading eggshell producing countries.

79
M. Waheed et al.
chewability and higher bioavailability. Components of milk tablet
include powdered milk, sugars such as dextrin and sucrose and calcium;
where the calcium is considered as an important mineral for the human
body. Calcium can be attained from two potential sources i.e. eggshell
and oyster shell. Incorporation of calcium through employing nano­
technology results in higher bioavailability of food products as
compared to micro-sized products. This means that a higher proportion
of nutrient is capable of being absorbed and available for use or storage
inside the human body. Furthermore, it is equally important that the
calcium or its bioactive ingredient should be present in an absorbable
form. Sensory evaluation of milk tablets fortified with nano-sized cal­
cium powder showed that there was no difference between control milk
tablet and nano powdered eggshell fortified milk tablets (Lee, Kim, Min,
& Kwak, 2016) suggesting it to be an ideal candidate for this application.
2.2. Preparation of lactose free milk for lactose intolerant individuals
Fina, Brun, and Rigalli (2016) prepared lactose free milk for in­
dividuals with lactose intolerance by utilising eggshell powder and kefir.
Kefir milk is fermented milk produced by lactic acid and carbon dioxide.
Milk produced this way does not cause lactose intolerance, prevents
demineralization and is beneficial for heart health. The researchers
prepared 3 different samples and compared them with control (milk).
One of the test samples contained 200 mg of eggshell powder which was
added as a calcium source, the second sample included milk with 2.5 g of
kefir grain, whereas the third sample contained milk with the addition of
200 g eggshell powder and 2.5 g kefir grains. Results of the study
illustrated that milk treated with calcium and kefir had higher calcium
and reduced lactose contents, rendering it suitable for consumption by
lactose intolerant individuals.
Individuals suffering from lactose intolerance can also be given
soymilk which is a good source of protein and lacks lactose. It, however;
also lacks calcium but can be fortified to fulfil the nutritive requirement.
Novelina, Anggraini, and Putri (2020) prepared jelly candy from soy­
milk and fortified it with calcium obtained from the eggshell. The
eggshell powder was incorporated at varying concentrations of 0, 0.2,
0.4, 0.6 and 0.8% of total ingredients. The results were suggestive that
eggshell powder at different concentrations caused changes in calcium,
reducing sugar, ash, water content and best organoleptic results were
obtained at 0.8% eggshell powder. Another lactose free source of milk is
lablab bean sprout milk. Its composition is like that of soya milk and can
be fortified with calcium extracted from the eggshell. Nugraha (2019,
pp. 1–8) stated that the addition of 2% w/v of CaCl2 resulted in similar
calcium content as that of high calcium containing ultra-high tempera­
ture (UHT) treated milk.
2.3. Calcium supplement
Calcium supplements normally include salts of calcium carbonate,
calcium gluconate and calcium citrate, which may not always be effi­
cient. Some calcium supplements are available in markets which are
manufactured from oyster shells such as CIPCAL-500. Extraction of
calcium from oyster shells is not only tedious but also costly since oyster
shells are not readily available. So, chicken eggshells appear to be a
suitable alternative source to be incorporated in calcium supplements,
as eggshells are easy to gather and calcium extraction is way easier than
the extraction from oyster shells and have high solubility. Gaonkar and
Chakraborty (2016) compared extraction and bioavailability of calcium
from both these sources and deduced that extraction and bioavailability
of calcium obtained from chicken eggshell is easier and higher as
compared to the oyster shell which appears to be the main source of
calcium. The eggshell powder has high calcium content, is acidic and
easy to ionise. Apart from that, the study of calcium release to artificial
gastric juice revealed that calcium released more rapidly from tablets
containing eggshell derived calcium citrate as compared to others which
contained synthetic calcium carbonate (Barbara, Marta, Beata, &
80
Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90
Florian, 2016).
Siemiradzka, Dolinska, and Ryszka (2018) tried to manufacture
calcium supplements using eggshell as a raw material. The basic purpose
of the investigation was to evaluate the effect of raw material on phar­
maceutical bioavailability of the supplement tablets. They inferred that
calcium obtained from eggshells was a good source of calcium and
calcium citrate prepared this way by using eggshells released calcium
within 2 and a half hours.
Sakai et al. (2017) in a study compared the effect of calcium sup­
plementation obtained from eggshell powder and calcium carbonate on
bone mineral density. Bone mineral density determined through the
speed of sound (Dransfield and Sosnicki) test indicated that individuals
fed with eggshell calcium supplementation had higher bone mass as
compared to those who were given calcium carbonate supplements or
the placebo group. Barbara et al. (2016) reported that tablets modified
with eggshell calcium released around 80% calcium within half an hour,
followed by 7% release of calcium from tablets supplemented with
calcium carbonate. After 3 h, the values reached up to 100% and 60%
respectively.
2.4. Bone graft substitute
Bone defects due to some congenital diseases, tumours or traumas
are a major problem in the field of orthopaedics and can lead to per­
manent deformities and dysfunction. This makes it highly essential to
develop biodegradable supporting structures to improve regeneration of
bones (Huang et al., 2020). Eggshells are natural biomaterials, owing to
the presence of other trace minerals and higher content of inorganic
calcium carbonate renders it an attractive waste material to be exploited
as a source of calcium in preparing hydroxyapatite. Hydroxyapatite,
being the main component of vertebral bone tissue, is used as a bone
graft substitute due to its high biocompatibility and similarity with bone
structure in terms of mineral composition. This eggshell derived hy­
droxyapatite was hard and tough, and thus, was beneficial for
load-bearing applications (Kamalanathan et al., 2014).
Alhussary, A Taqa, and Taqa (2020) applied nanohydroxyapatite
from eggshells and seashells on the damaged mandibular bone of a
rabbit and deduced that eggshell derived hydroxyapatite was better in
terms of porosity and osteoinductivity. This could be explained by the
work of Salama, Khashaba, and El Rouby (2019) according to whom
eggshell based graft powder has the capability of enhancing new bone
formation. Huang et al. (2020) prepared MgO nanoparticle coated
eggshell particles which were tried later for producing supporting
structures (scaffolds). The results suggested that eggshell based scaffolds
had higher compressive strength and they displayed higher minerali­
sation and osteogenic (bone forming) differentiation potential. Apart
from that hydroxyapatite-based composites had higher thermal stabil­
ity, biocompatibility and osteoplastic potential and less degradation
percentage.
2.4.1. Nano-sheets for bone graft substitute
Zhang et al. (2012) demonstrated that calcium citrate has the po­
tential to influence healing mechanism in the early stages of bone defect.
If a bone defect is not too large, calcium citrate can resorb faster as
compared to calcium hydroxyapatite and calcium phosphate. Eggshells,
shells and other biological waste material contain calcium carbonate in
higher amounts which can then be utilised to extract calcium citrate.
To prepare nano-sized sheets of calcium citrate, ethanol was added to
sodium citrate and calcium chloride containing solution. Calcium citrate
tetrahydrate formed this way, could well crystallize when ethanol and
water were mixed in the ratio of 1:2. It’s testing on animal bones
revealed that calcium citrate positively influenced healing of fractured
bone in rabbits. Synthetic nano-calcium citrate is a potential candidate
for bone graft substitutes owing to high bioavailability and its ability to
regenerate new bones (Li et al., 2016).
Wang, He, Hao, Wu, and Qin (2018) prepared Selenium (Se)-doped
M. Waheed et al.
hydroxyapatite nanorods from eggshell powder, intending to apply this
therapy to osteosarcoma patients post operatively. Se-doped hydroxy­
apatite not only improved the growth of normal bone cells but also
inhibited cancerous cells proliferation. Salama et al. (2019) evaluated
the regenerative ability and biocompatibility of an eggshell containing
supplement as a bone graft in rabbits. They first created bone cavities
surgically and then filled them with eggshell based supplement powder.
Histological examination of the bones revealed newly formed bone
trabeculae (fibrous tissue).
2.5. Dentistry
The extreme surface coarseness of dental plate or artificial teeth can
impair the health of the oral cavity. Onwubu, Vahed, Singh, and Kanny
(2017) determined the effectiveness of eggshell powder in reducing
surface roughness. They prepared different specimens and polished
them with eggshell powder of varying particle sizes. Some of the spec­
imens were polished with pumice – a volcanic rock. After analysing
surface roughness with different techniques, it was concluded that
eggshell powder is more effective in reducing the surface roughness of
dental plate or artificial teeth. These dental cements are extensively
being practised in the field of dentistry. These can be employed as a base
material, for temporary filling and luting. Calcium based cement are
utilised in root canal filling, apexification and apexogenesis.
Mony, Ebenezar, Ghani, and Narayanan (2015) evaluated the po­
tential of eggshell powder solution to re-mineralize enamel carious le­
sions. Enamel carious lesions are referred to as white spots which occur
on the surface of teeth as a result of acidic pH of mouth due to acid
production by cariogenic bacteria. Un-erupted, third molars were
exploited in this study where each molar was divided into 4 parts and
subjected to demineralization protocol and was then divided into 4
groups. These groups were untreated group, sub-surface demineraliza­
tion group, sub-surface demineralization followed by 7-day immersion
in chicken eggshell powder solution and sub-surface demineralization
followed by clinpro application. It was inferred that chicken eggshell
powder with a higher content of calcium was capable of re-mineralizing
enamel carious lesions. Onwubu, Mdluli, Singh, Madikizela, and
Ngombane (2019) evaluated acid resistant nanosized dental
eggshell-titanium dioxide material and deduced that these were effec­
tive in re-mineralizing enamel lesions and provided a better protective
covering to tooth enamel.
2.5.1. Filler on bio-composite acrylic resin for denture based
Due to poor dental hygiene, tooth loss has increased in the past few
years and in order to counter this problem, the use of denture is also
expected to rise. The denture base is that part of the denture which rests
on soft tissues and; therefore, should be biocompatible. Mechanical
properties of denture material depend upon particle size, morphology
and distribution of filler molecule. Eggshell, due to high source of cal­
cium carbonate, is a good biocompatible biomaterial. Denture material
prepared by employing eggshell as a bio-filler indicates high modulus of
elasticity and modulus of rapture i.e. it has higher stiffness and strength
(Lubis, Ginting, Dalimunthe, Hasibuan, & Sastrodihardjo, 2017). Similar
results were reported by Mohammed (2020) who further reported that
specimen with 1% eggshell powder displayed highest average value of
elongation percentage at break (i.e. more ductile) while specimen with
5% eggshell powder had a high mean value of impact strength (ability to
resist certainly applied force).
KareemBurhan, Kareem, and Abed (2020) determined the impact of
adding eggshell powder on flexural strength of eggshell-PMMA com­
posites when treated with various denture cleansers. Final results
demonstrated that when 1% eggshell was added; flexural strength
improved by 15% and upon treatment with dental cleansers flexural
strength improved by 25% with tap water, 11% with peroxide based
cleansers and 30% with salty water.
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90
2.6. Pharmaceutical industry/excipient
A new application of eggshell powder involves its use as a pharma­
ceutical excipient in fast and sustained release of acetaminophen tablets,
where this drug was used as a model by Than, Lawanprasert, and
Jateleela (2012). Four different eggshell powders were prepared.
Namely: untreated eggshell powder, ethanol treated, chloroform treated
eggshell and water treated eggshell powder. Constituents of tablets
including acetaminophen, microcrystalline cellulose and eggshell pow­
der were prepared by direct compression method. Results demonstrated
that untreated eggshell powder triggered the fast release of the drug,
whereas, treated eggshell powders induced sustained release of the drug.
Habib et al. (2015) undertook a study to prepare sustained release
tablets of aceclofenac by incorporating eggshell powder as a pharma­
ceutical excipient. The results of the investigation were suggestive that
eggshells could act as a cheap pharmaceutical excipient contrary to the
commercially available expensive release retardant polymers. More­
over, the release pattern of the drug also relied upon the solution with
which eggshell was treated. In the given case, chloroform treated
eggshell powder formulation yielded better results since the formulation
can promote desirable drug release upon hydration, swelling and gel
formation.
2.7. Heavy metals removal
2.7.1. Lead, cadmium and copper removal
With increasing industrialization, the aquatic environment is being
contaminated by heavy metals at a very rapid rate. Metal-based indus­
trial operations, smeltering, mining and foundries all lead to heavy
metal contamination. Inorganic pollutants such as lead, cadmium,
arsenic, chromium and mercury are particularly a concern because they
are non-biodegradable, toxic and mobile. These heavy metals can
accumulate in the human body and lead to serious toxicity issues and
health concerns even at low concentrations. Eggshells can also be uti­
lised as a low-cost sorbent for the removal of cadmium, lead and copper
ions from aqueous solutions. Waste eggshells contain around 95% of
calcium carbonate which can reduce environmental pollution by
immobilizing heavy metals (Ahmad et al., 2012). Fig. 2 shows how
eggshells act as an adsorbing agent and remove heavy metals from
polluted water.
Kanyal and Bhatt (2015) studied the effect of eggshell waste in
removing contaminants (heavy metals) from wastewater. They postu­
lated that eggshells are best adsorbents and provide the highest yield at a
neutral pH, 100 revolutions per minute and 90-min contact time. They
further stated that if the particle size of eggshell was reduced to nano­
scale, results could be more cost-effective. They used other household
wastes such as powder of banana peel and pumpkin, but eggshells were
considered effective as they made filtration process easier (they left
colourless solution). Jahan, Mollah, Ahmed, and Susan (2017) prepared
nano-hydroxyapatite from eggshell-derived-calcium precursor and these
Fig. 2. Removal of heavy metals through adsorption/sorption.
M. Waheed et al.
proved to be very effective adsorbent in removing heavy metals like
arsenic from aqueous solutions.
An experiment by Tizo et al. (2018) depicted that chicken eggshells
could help to remove more than 70% of Cadmium from aqueous solu­
tion. The highest adsorption capacity of 146 mg/g was obtained at 150
mg/L with a contact time of 1 h and 15 min and 0.75 g adsorbent. The
rate of adsorption depended upon concentration factor while valence
forces (through sharing and exchanging of electrons) between cadmium
ion and calcium carbonate from eggshell determined rate limiting step.
This confirmed that eggshells can be a good non-renewable adsorbent as
compared to other commercial or waste-derived adsorbents for heavy
metal removal.
Makuchowska-Fryc (2019) prepared a mixed solution of nickel,
cadmium and copper and checked the effectiveness of eggshell and clay
limestone in removing these metals. These three elements are also found
in effluent from wet flue gas desulphurisation installations; so, the ratio
(of minerals) was kept like that in the effluent. The results of the study
demonstrated that the metals were removed when they bind to hy­
droxides or carbonates (i.e. precipitate out) and that eggshells can be
used as a replacement of clay limestone.
2.7.2. Immobilization of Lead and Cadmium in contaminated soil
In order to immobilize heavy metals present in the soil; such as
cadmium and lead, liming materials can be tested. One of the liming
materials is calcium carbonate which is present in high amounts in
eggshells. These heavy metals in the ground can contaminate ground­
water and end up accumulating in plants. When humans consume these
plants, these elements are amassed in the human body and are not
removed. Constant accumulation results in a build-up of these elements
Fig. 3. Immobilization of Lead and Cadmium in contaminated soil.
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90
at toxic levels. Therefore, it is necessary to remove such heavy metals
from soil and for this purpose chicken eggshells-liming material is
effective. Chicken eggshell also serves as an alternative source of cal­
cium carbonate. Incorporation of eggshells elevates the pH level of soil
which may result in precipitation of heavy metals in soil (Ok et al.,
2011). Fig. 3 shows how calcium carbonate or other liming agent
immobilize heavy metals in soil.
Ashrafi, Mohamad, Yusoff, and Hamid (2015) made two low-cost
amendments to treat slightly alkaline soil. These included eggshells
and banana peel for immobilization of lead, zinc and cadmium in soil.
The soil was contaminated artificially before treatment with 10% ba­
nana stem or 5% eggshell powder. Metal leaching experiments were also
conducted for 3 months and towards the end of experimentation,
sequential extraction was carried out. According to experimental results,
soil treated with eggshell showed considerably reduced mobility of the
metals particularly by transforming themselves into less accessible
fractions.
2.7.3. Separation of chromium from water
Chromium, a hazardous pollutant obtained from industrial effluent is
highly soluble in water and its oxidised form i.e. hexavalent chromium is
very toxic for animals and humans. Once this element reaches blood
circulation, it damages organs and initiates serious life-threatening
complications. To overcome this problem, waste eggshells are feasible
as a sorbent for removing chromium ions from water. Maximum
removal (93%) of hexavalent chromium was obtained at 25 ◦ C, pH 5-
and 90-min contact time (Daraei, Mittal, Noorisepehr, & Mittal, 2015).
Ravi and Sundararaman (2020) have also stated that eggshell coated
magnetic nanoparticles were promising adsorbent for separating
M. Waheed et al.
chromium from water. According to their findings, these nanoparticles
removed hexavalent chromium from tested water, underground, tan­
nery and surface wastewater by ≈ 92%, 84%, ≈72% and ≈90%
respectively.
Chen, Xiao, and Yang (2016) loaded Iron (III) oxide-hydroxide
(α-FeOOH) particles on the eggshell surface through covalent bond
interaction and electrostatic attraction to evaluate adsorption capacity
and mechanism of eggshell to adsorb and remove hexavalent chromium
and phosphate from aqueous solutions. After series of experiments; they
concluded that α-FeOOH modification was effective in improving
sorption ability of eggshell and proved that eggshells could be a po­
tential pollutant remedy. Removal rate of both these pollutants was
directly proportional to adsorbent dosage; while rate decreased when
pH increased from 3 to 9 and ionic strength increased from 0 to 0.1 M.
2.7.4. Removal of heavy metals from acid mine drainage
During mining and extraction of minerals; fragmentation of sulphur
containing minerals (sulphur ores) generates acid mine drainage
through a series of geochemical reactions. This acid mine drainage is
extremely acidic (pH 3) with a heavy load of minerals like iron, man­
ganese, aluminium and sulphates (Muliwa, Leswifi, & Onyango, 2018).
When minerals and sulphide ores are exposed to water and oxygen then
acid mine drainage or acid rock drainage is formed. Heavy metals are
released in water once the ore is exposed resulting in the water body to
have a low pH, high heavy metal load and salinity which ultimately
impacts water resources and living organisms (Moodley, Sheridan,
Kappelmeyer, & Akcil, 2018).
Though neutralisation through limestone was an effective way to
counter the problem, but limestone mining has its demerits. Therefore; it
was necessary to develop an alternative, economical way of neutralising
acid mine drainage. The focus was then shifted to biomaterials and re­
ports indicated that sawdust, sugar cane bagasse, rice husks, orange and
banana peel were also effective, but eggshells proved to be most bene­
ficial owing to their composition. Calcium carbonate-the major
component of eggshell could be useful in binding or exchanging ions and
is a significant alkalising agent (when equilibrated with acidic water,
heavy metals precipitate on eggshell’s surface i.e. neutralisation takes
place) (Muliwa et al., 2018).
Muliwa et al. (2018) employed eggshells for removal of heavy metals
from acid mine drainage and their results revealed that eggshells not
only had an excellent acid-neutralising effect as compared to limestone
but were economical as well. Eggshell particles reduced the acidity of
acid mine drainage. Removal of heavy metals was dominated by pre­
cipitation in alkaline reactions and co-precipitation of heavy metals with
iron ions. The sludge formed by eggshells settled faster as compared to
that obtained from limestone counterpart and therefore can be used in
sedimentation ponds. Iron and aluminium were removed easily and
completely at a lower temperature; while manganese was partially
removed at a higher temperature. Kinetic models revealed that
aluminium and iron were completely removed in a shorter time
whereas; manganese needed a longer time.
Choi and Lee (2015) investigated the effect of calcined eggshell and
microalgae specie for the removal of heavy metals from acid mine
drainage, which is a serious environmental issue. Calcined eggshells
partially removed heavy metals from acid mine drainage and signifi­
cantly neutralized acidic pH of water. The removal rate of iron, zinc,
copper, cadmium, manganese and arsenic were 99.66, 99.90, 99.47,
100, 99.81 and 100%, respectively. Moreover; as measured through an
optical panel photobioreactor (OPPBR) biomass productivity was re­
ported to increase by 8 times. A linear relationship was seen between
biomass productivity and heavy metal removal. Therefore, it can be
inferred that calcined eggshells and microalgae hybrid system appear to
be suitable alternatives for the treatment of wastewater on a large scale.
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2.8. Catalytic applications
2.8.1. Biodiesel production
Growing demand for energy and awareness about environmental
conditions has led to the development of alternative fuel sources which
can replace already depleting fossil fuels. Biodiesel, which is an alter­
native fuel for diesel engines, is biodegradable, non-toxic and renewable
which means that it is environment friendly (Niju, Sheriffa Begum, &
Anantharaman, 2014). In the context of environmental problems due to
reliance on traditional homogenous catalysts and food-fuel rivalry,
production of biodiesel from vegetable oil by traditional homogenous
catalysts will no longer be permissible and acceptable in the near future.
A substantial rise has been discerned in the use of heterogeneous cata­
lysts to produce biodiesel particularly because of ecological numerations
and its ability to counter greenhouse gases (Mansir et al., 2018).
To manufacture cost-effective biodiesel; non-edible oils, fish oils and
animal fat can be employed as raw material instead of using edible plant
and vegetable oil. Alkaline earth metal oxides with a high pH value are
appropriate for biodiesel manufacturing. Among these alkaline earth
metals oxides, oxide of calcium is a favourable heterogeneous base
catalyst. To obtain calcium oxide, waste shells of egg, molluscs and
oysters etc. were calcined to utilise them in biodiesel production (Niju
et al., 2014). Fig. 4 shows a schematic diagram for biodiesel production.
Eggshells from hen and ducks have been utilised as raw material for
preparing heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production and are
considered as a bioresource for the production of heterogeneous catalyst
and can be employed for manufacturing biodiesel with high purity. Wei,
Xu, and Li (2009) reported that a highly active and reusable catalyst can
be obtained by calcination of eggshells. The utilization of eggshell as a
catalyst in biodiesel production is not only cost-effective but also re­
duces biodiesel production cost. Tshizanga, Aransiola, and Oyekola
(2017) reported a significantly higher yield of biodiesel by using
calcined eggshell ash. More than 90% of biodiesel yield was obtained in
2 h by using only 3.5% weight of eggshell ash. Table 3 summarises
utilization of eggshell powder for the production of biodiesel by various
researchers.
2.9. Partial replacement of cement
Eggshells rich in calcium carbonate are deemed to be a solid waste
material which is very difficult to dispose. Various scientists have
partially replaced cement with eggshell and reported using the mixture
in road pavements, floor tiles, earth canals, dams and as a soil stabilizer.
Amaral, Siqueira, Destefani, and Holanda (2013) discovered an alter­
native way to use eggshell waste. They exploited it as a raw material in
the cement-brick body and replaced up to 30% cement with eggshell
waste. Soil, cement and eggshell waste were employed as raw materials.
Bricks with 0% calcium carbonate were considered as control or refer­
ence brick. Bricks with added eggshell waste showed higher density, low
water absorption and beneficial effect on mechanical strength. These
traits could be attributed to the presence of calcium carbonate which
acts as a filler and positively influences the granulometric composition
of cement, decreases open pores of cured bricks and leads to augmented
densification.
Kumar, Vijaya, and Jose (2016) have reported that compressive and
flexural strength of concrete was enhanced with the addition of eggshell
powder. Addition of silica further improved its strength. Bandhavya,
Sandeep, and Bindhushree (2017) replaced cement with eggshell pow­
der at varying concentrations of 0–15% and lower concentrations
resulted in higher compressive strengths. Balouch, Rashid, Javed, and
Ahmad (2017) replaced cement with eggshell powder in varying con­
centrations of up to 5–20% and compressive strengths measured after 7,
14, 28 and 63 days demonstrated that compressive strength increased
after 28 days and was maximum when 15% of cement was replaced with
eggshell.
Ing and Choo (2014) investigated the effect of 5 different
M. Waheed et al.
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram demonstrating production of biodiesel using eggshell as catalyst.
concentrations of eggshell powder on the compressive strength of
cement. The highest compressive strength was achieved with 10%
eggshell powder and this was around 60% higher than the control group.
Findings of these studies indicated that eggshell powder can be suc­
cessfully used as a partial replacement of cement to produce concrete.
Concrete with eggshell powder absorbed less water and allowed less
water penetration. Moreover, cement produced by using eggshell pow­
der is cheap and can be feasible in constructions where strength is not
considered as a matter of concern. Apart from that, the addition of
eggshell powder is known to reduce the plasticity index of soil which is a
measure of the plasticity of soil (Soundara & Vilasini, 2015).
2.10. Dye bio sorbent and adsorbent
Heavy metals, volatile organic compounds and dye stuffs are carci­
nogenic materials found in wastewater, thus, posing a threat to living
organisms. Therefore, it is the need of the hour to eliminate or reduce
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90
them from waste waters by various methods. Among these methods,
adsorption techniques are easy to use, inexpensive, simple and absorb
dyes at higher concentrations. Recently, some considerable interest has
been generated for developing inexpensive adsorbents from waste ma­
terials. Eggshells discarded as waste materials by food manufacturers
and restaurants can be employed as adsorbents. The main component of
the eggshell is calcium carbonate, whereas eggshell membranes are
composed of fibrous protein network which has a large surface area.
Certain studies have indicated that eggshells are able to absorb metal
ions, dye stuffs and organic compounds effectively. When eggshells
particles are combined as filler with polymeric hydrogels, these can act
as cost-effective adsorbents with improved adsorption capacity (Bakhshi
& Darvishi, 2016). J. Li, Ng, Ma, Zuo, and Song (2017) stated that
eggshell derived MgFe2O4 was a very good adsorbent for capturing,
transferring and removing antibiotic doxycycline. Their study further
reported that adsorbed MgFe2O4 was reusable after magnetic separation
from water and acidic treatment.
M. Waheed et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90

Table 3
Utilization of eggshell powder as catalyst for production of biodiesel.
Calcium oxide source Procedure % biodiesel % Reaction Reference
yield catalyst time

Chicken eggshell waste Transesterification of waste cooking oil 96.07 1.50 50 min Gupta and Rathod (2018)
Chicken eggshell waste Transesterification of waste cooking oil for biodiesel 96.74 5 4h Borah, Das, Das, Bhuyan, and Deka (2019)
production
Chicken eggshell waste Transesterification of date seed oil for biodiesel 93.5 5 1.5 h Farooq et al. (2018)
production
Chicken eggshell waste Transesterification of soya bean oil for biodiesel 93 7 3h Goli, Mondal, and Sahu (2018)
production
Chicken eggshell waste Transesterification of jatropha curcas oil 90 2 2.5 h Chavan, Kumbhar, Madhu, Singh, and Sharma
(2015)
Chicken eggshell waste Transesterification of vegetable oil 90 10 3h Majhi and Ray (2016)
Calcined chicken eggshell Transesterification of waste cotton cooking oil 92 3 1h Sinha and Murugavelh (2016)
waste
Waste chicken eggshells Transesterification of waste cooking oil 90.63 7.728 75 min El-Gendy and Deriase (2015)
Chicken eggshell waste Transesterification of waste cooking oil 96.2 2 2h Mansir, Teo, Ibrahim, and Hin (2017)
Calcined chicken eggshell Transesterification of waste frying oil 95.05 3 3h Niju, Sheriffa Begum, and Anantharaman
(2015)
Chicken eggshell Transesterification of waste cooking oil 94 1.5 2h Tan, Abdullah, Nolasco-Hipolito, and
Taufiq-Yap (2015)
Chicken eggshells Transesterification of fresh soya bean oil 98 5.8 9h Piker, Tabah, Perkas, and Gedanken (2016)
Transesterification of waste cooking oil 97 11 h

Pettinato, Chakraborty, Arafat, and Calabro (2015) aimed to
improve the efficiency of membrane biological reactor (MBR) system in
removing heavy metals by using eggshells. Metal presence in the system
can cause membrane fouling and to counter that problem, eggshells
prove to be an effective strategy. Owing to their surface properties and
porous structure, eggshells possess the ability to remove heavy metals,
pesticides, dyes and phenolic compounds from water. Eggshells were
reported to be effective in removing contaminants like Congo red
(Seyahmazegi, Mohammad-Rezaei, & Razmi, 2016), rhodamine B,
eriochrome black T, murexide dyes (Borhade & Kale, 2017), methyl
violet (Foroutan et al., 2019), acidic fuchsine and malachite green
(Moosavi, Amooey, & Marzbali, 2020).
Another application of eggshell as a bio-adsorbent involves the
enhanced synthesis of bio-methane gas from ammonia rich waste
(livestock waste in particular). High levels of ammonia produced from
livestock waste can inhibit anaerobic digestion and as a result, bio-
methane gas (a non-fossil fuel source of energy) would not be pro­
duced. So, eggshells and lignite-modified zeolite can be considered
reliable as a bio-adsorbent during anaerobic digestion of livestock waste
to prevent the accumulation of by-products and ensure that anaerobic
digestion process is carried out smoothly (Zhang et al., 2019).
2.11. Carbon dioxide sorbent
As a result of the industrial revolution, environmental pollution is
escalating. This fact can be explained by exacerbated emission of
greenhouse gases which includes carbon dioxide as well. Therefore,
capturing and storage of carbon dioxide is necessary to prevent or at
least reduce global warming. Utilization of eggshells not only provides
technology with economical sorbent processing costs but also concur­
rently eradicates the waste. Fig. 5 illustrates how eggshells can be uti­
lised in sequestering carbon dioxide. When carbon dioxide sorbent
capacity of calcined eggshell and commercially available calcium car­
bonate was compared, it was observed that capacity of calcined eggshell
to capture carbon dioxide was higher as compared to that of commer­
cially available calcium carbonate. This phenomenon could be
explained due to the small particle size of calcium oxide which provides
a large exposed surface area for the surface reactions of carbon dioxide
(Witoon, 2011). He et al. (2017) derived from their experimental study
that hydrated eggshells combined with 10% red mud displayed an op­
timum absorption performance and the conversion rate was more than
50%. Salaudeen, Tasnim, Heidari, Acharya, and Dutta (2018) deter­
mined the performance of eggshell as a sorbent in multiple
calcination-carbonation cycles and reported that more than 75% of
carbon dioxide was converted after the first cycle.
2.12. Development of rigid polyurethane foam composites
Rigid polyurethane foam (RPUF) is efficient, high performance
insulating material, which can be employed as an effective mean to cut
down energy cost and render the products more economical and
comfortable. These RPUFs are manoeuvred in construction to limit noise
and maintain temperature. These can also be utilised to insulate walls,
roofs, windows and doors (ACC, 2019). Recent research trends
encourage utilization of environment friendly raw materials and to
address the issue of waste management. Zieleniewska et al. (2016)
developed RPUF using eggshell powder as a filler and evaluated prop­
erties of the developed product. Results indicated that incorporation of
eggshell powder increased its apparent density and strength. Moreover,
the material offered no toxicity to human skin cells and had higher
stability. Tangboriboon, Mulsow, Sangwan, and Sirivat (2018)
embedded eggshell derived composite foams of calcium sodium alumi­
nosilicate in polyurethane and noted improvement in polyurethane. It
now possessed high thermal decomposition temperature, high specific
surface area and was lighter in weight.
2.13. Linearly low-density polyethylene
Linearly low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) is an important product
polymer which is employed for processing of useful products like con­
tainers, sheets, table coverings etc. It is used in various applications
because of its chemical resistance, toughness, anti-corrosiveness and
anti-cracking flexibility. Regardless of its excellent properties, it is
expensive in nature. To overcome this issue and to improve its physio­
logical and chemical properties, inorganic materials which are cheap are
added to low-density polyethylene as filler. For this purpose, various
filler materials were studied and inorganic oxides especially those ob­
tained from eggshells (eggshell derived calcium oxide and eggshell
derived hydroxyapatite) were found to be beneficial in improving
physicochemical properties. After analysis of LLDPE composites through
various techniques, it was assumed that linearly low-density lipoprotein,
which was prepared by using eggshells had a macroporous structure,
with improved hardness, tensile strength (maximum stress which the
material can withhold before breaking), impact strength (ability to resist
suddenly applied force) and flame retardancy (ability to retard fire
propagation) (Jirimali et al., 2018).

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M. Waheed et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90

Fig. 5. Schematic diagram showing utilization of eggshell in CO2 sequestration.

2.14. Bio-filler for polypropylene composites when compared with polypropylene composites made of other materials
like calcium carbonate or talc. Moreover, eggshell polypropylene com­
Bashir and Manusamy (2016) characterised eggshells through posites displayed higher tensile strength when compared with those
various analysing techniques like Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), made of calcium carbonate. Eggshells also indicate better reinforcement
Fourier Transform Infra-red Spectroscopy (FTIR), X-Ray Diffraction properties and therefore, are a good substitute to inorganic fillers like
(XRD), Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) calcium carbonate and talc.
and their analysis showed that eggshell could be beneficial as a bio filler
for bulk quantity since it is cheap, lightweight and low-load bearing.
2.15. Harvesting microalgae species
Moreover; eggshells had a higher interfacial adhesion as compared to
other ingredients which are used as bio-filler. Feng et al. (2014) also
Microalgae are photosynthetic micro-organisms which convert
exerted the same techniques to characterise eggshell based composites
water, solar energy and carbon dioxide to algal biomass and are an
and deduced that eggshell based polypropylene composites had higher
attractive raw material for biodiesel since they can be cultivated in less
tensile strength with highest values being observed at 4% eggshell
space and have a short growth period. However; harvesting microalgae
powder concentration.
is expensive particularly because of their small size and low cell density
For polypropylene composites, eggshells can be viable as bio-filler.
(H.-J. Choi, 2017). Currently various mechanical, chemical, electrical
Toro, Quijada, Yazdani-Pedram, and Arias (2007) compared tensile
and biological techniques are being employed for harvesting microalgae
strengths of polypropylene composites with distinctive ratios of talc,
(Pandey, Pathak, Kothari, Black, & Tyagi, 2019). Though some of the
calcium carbonate and eggshell powder. Eggshells have low density and
techniques previously developed for harvesting microalgae (such as
polypropylene composites with eggshells exhibited higher crystallinity
flocculation and adsorption) are simple and cost-effective, but they

86
M. Waheed et al.
require a considerable amount of chemical consumption. Apart from
that; use of excessive metals causes further problems if an algal mass is
to be considered as a food source for fishes or fuel production (Choi,
2017).
To counter this problem; eggshells are considered as a novel
approach since they are a natural coagulating material and are highly
recommended owing to their non-toxic, easy to use and non-corrosive
nature. Eggshells have a high cationic charge density, and therefore;
strongly destabilize negatively charged microalgae cells. Fig. 6 illus­
trates how eggshells are used as flocculant in harvesting microalgae.
Harvesting of microalgae using eggshell is not only cost-effective but
also environment friendly. Microalgae separation of about 99% was
attained at optimal conditions i.e. 80 mg/L eggshells, 150 r/minute
mixing rate, 20 min mixing time and 20 min settling time at an optimum
pH of 6 (H. J. Choi, 2015). Pandey et al. (2019) compared the ability of
waste eggshell, laboratory available calcium carbonate and alum for
harvesting microalgae. According to his results, bio-flocculants (waste
eggshells) were effective in dewatering algal biomass from aqueous
media (99% efficiency at pH 4).
2.16. Coating pigment
Corrosion has long been a problem for carbon steel (a most common
and versatile engineering material wielded as pipes and vessels for water
transportation) and coatings are applied to protect the material. Calcium
carbonate obtained from eggshells had been used as a coating pigment
for carbon steel by Bakar, Rosly, and Jafar (2017). They tried the elec­
trophoretic deposition (EPD) method for this purpose and inferred that
the method was successful at optimum conditions of 60 s, 80 V and
600 ◦ C.
Incorporation of eggshells as a coating pigment for inkjet printers
provides another way to utilise eggshell waste. In past, synthetic pig­
ments based on silicon oxide were considered suitable in inkjet printers
but they had certain advantages and disadvantages. Silica provided high
image resolution, high colour intensity and rapid drying but it was not
cost-effective and had high binder demand. Therefore, eggshells proved
to be an effective alternative to silicon oxide, since these are readily
available and cheap. Utilization of eggshells as a coating pigment for
inkjet printer improved optical density for dye-based inks and reduced
the density of black ink and paper gloss. Therefore, eggshells could be an
effective source for their utilization in inkjet printers with multi-colour
prints rather than simple black and white prints (Yoo, Hsieh, Zou, &
Kokoszka, 2009).
Fig. 6. Utilization of eggshell as a flocculant in harvesting microalgae.
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90
2.17. Template for high performance lithium-sulphur batteries
With the increasing demand for high energy density storage devices,
lithium-sulphur batteries have attracted more attention in recent de­
cades. However, due to certain disadvantages like poor electrical con­
ductivity, shuttle effect (transport of soluble polysulfides between both
electrodes) and volume expansion they are not considered efficient for
commercial applications. In order to address this issue, Yuan et al.
(2017) modified the separator by preparing Nitrogen and Sulphur
co-doped mesoporous carbon prepared by exploiting eggshell. The
manufactured product had a large surface area and therefore provided
effective active sites for adsorption of polysulphides and has potential to
be used as a commercial product. Zhang et al. (2018) tested eggshells as
a bio-template to manufacture δ-MnO2 nanoplatelets anode of high ca­
pacity for lithium-ion batteries. They compared its performance with
eggshell free δ-MnO2 batteries. The results registered that eggshell based
batteries had a much higher electrochemical performance as compared
to other battery materials.
2.18. Animal feed
Eggshells can also be incorporated as a calcium source in animal feed
(Fig. 7). Kismiati, Yuwanta, Zuprizal, and Supadmo (2012) incorporated
eggshells in the dietary regimen of brown laying hens and studied its
overall impact. Hens were divided into four groups; one group was given
the only limestone while other was fed with only eggshell powder.
Whereas, other two groups were provided with a combination of
eggshell powder and limestone. Results showed that eggshell powder
considerably optimised dietary calcium and phosphorus intake. It also
had a significant effect on egg production and egg weight as compared to
the other two groups, highlighting the importance of eggshell calcium.
Kismiati, Yuwanta, Zuprizal, Supadmo, and Atmomarsono (2018)
aimed to determine deposition of calcium in eggs of Isa brown strains
(chicken breed) which were fed eggshell flour as a substitute to lime­
stone in the feed. Different treatment groups were formed with varying
concentrations of limestone being replaced with eggshell powder.
Experimental results illustrated that upon 7.5% substitution of lime­
stone with eggshell flour; calcium deposition was highest in the yolk, but
this resulted in a loss of calcium from tibia bone. Use of 2.5% eggshell
powder resulted in calcium deposition in albumen. Another study by
Cherifi, Benammar, and Abdelli (2019) stated that supplementation of
eggshell powder in the diet of laying hens improved external charac­
teristics of the eggs, such as weight of eggs (+3 g) and shell (+1.3 g),
shape index (p = 0.01), shell proportion and mean thickness of the shell
(0.41 g); hence, improving its solidity as a whole and preventing it from
breakage while laying and handling.
2.19. Plant fertiliser
Eggshells contain calcium, which thus makes them an inexpensive
and environment friendly fertiliser (Fig. 7). Ground eggshells are
effective liming sources. Calcium elevates or counterbalances pH level of
highly acidic soil (Commey & Mensah, 2019). A study revealed that red
clover plants fertilized with eggshells had larger (10 mm) growth than
plants which were not fertilized with eggshells. Gaonkar and Chakra­
borty (2016) used eggshells as a source of plant fertiliser. Tomatoes
commonly suffer from blossom end root (BER) when they grow on a soil
which is deficient in calcium. So, they extracted calcium from eggshells
and added it to the soil which had either low or deficient calcium con­
tent. Results have revealed that utilization of eggshell as a fertiliser not
only enriched the soil with calcium but also maintained its pH level.
These eggshells can also be employed to treat blossom end root disease
of berry plants.
Compatibility of eggshell fertiliser with other commercially available
fertilisers was discussed by Wijaya and Teo (2019) and their results
concluded that eggshell powder in liquid form was compatible to that
M. Waheed et al.
Fig. 7. Utilization of eggshell as plant fertiliser or in animal/bird feed.
which was commercially available and yielded better results as
compared to eggshell in powdered form. Radha and Karthikeyan (2019)
noted the positive effect of using eggshell powder on the growth of
cowpea seeds. The growth of the plant (germination, root and shoot
length and number of leaves) was positively correlated with eggshell
powder concentration. Wazir, Gul, and Hussain (2018) reported that
eggshell powder as a fertiliser improved overall growth and develop­
ment of potato and pea plant. Eggshell powder improved mean plant
height, a number of nodes, leaves, leaf area, branches and tuber size.
3. Conclusions
The egg industry has developed rapidly in recent decades owing to
increased nutritional awareness. People have now adopted it as a good
source of high-quality protein. But at the same time, a heck of pile of
eggshells are discarded in the environment causing environmental
pollution. These eggshells are a useful commodity and can be utilised to
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90
produce a myriad of products which may have medicinal, pharmaceu­
tical and industrial applications. Moreover, this raw material is easily
and readily available at a low cost. With eggshells being regarded as the
15th leading cause of environmental pollution, it is need of the time to
reuse and recycle this industrial food waste for sustainable development
of our globe. Though this could not play a drastic role in eliminating
pollution, at least it could be a step forward towards a better environ­
ment because small drops can create mighty oceans! Based upon diverse
applications as explained through our exhaustive literature review, it
can be enumerated that eggshell cannot be simply ignored or dumped as
waste to landfills, rather can easily and effectively be transformed into
valuable products of industrial applications.
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
Pakistan for their support.
M. Waheed et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90

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