REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents a review of related literature and studies that are

significant to the present study. It contains significant and substantial data

collected from existing research papers, journals, websites, blogs, and other

research material that will provide additional information and knowledge about

the research study.

Eggshell Waste

Chicken eggs are an important element of the global human diet,

serving as a low-cost, high-quality, nutritional meal (Ahmed, Kulshreshtha, &

Hincke, 2019a). According to Shahbandeh (2020), the global egg production

exceeded 76.7 million metric tons in 2018. China, the United States,

Indonesia, India, and Mexico are the top five egg-producing nations,

accounting for around 63 percent of total world egg production (1,652 billion

eggs, 99 million tonnes) in 2019 (Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO],

2020).

Cordeiro and Hincke (2011) explained that approximately 30% of shell

eggs in industrialized nations are transferred to breaker processing

companies to generate liquid egg products and are not consumed as shell

eggs. Since eggshells and the accompanying eggshell membrane account for

around 10% of egg weight, they are generated in enormous numbers as a

byproduct of the egg-processing industries, with an estimated global

production of 2.3 million tons (AM. Laca; AD. Laca, & Diaz, 2017).
 Industrial egg producers must dispose of eggshell waste in landfills in

line with local environmental regulations. In addition, the costs of disposing of

egg waste in landfills are likely to grow in accordance with inflation (Ahmed et

al., 2019a). In 2018, the entire amount of ES waste in the globe was

estimated to be over 2.3 million tonnes (Hincke, Gautron, Mann, Rodriguez-

Navarro, & McKee, 2012). In 2018, China produced 458,448 million eggs with

137,534 million eggs processed in breaking factories, resulting in 825,204

tonnes of mineral-rich ES waste (FAO, 2020).

With a budget of about 1.5 million Euros, the European Commission

and the Seventh Framework Program (FP7) financed a two-year project

named "Separating ES and its membrane to transform ES waste into useful

source materials" in 2012 to assist ameliorate the environmental problem of

eggshell waste (Shellbrane, 2019). The Consortium created a prototype that

can process 60 kg/h of eggshell waste (about 10,000 eggs per hour), creating

high-quality eggshells. The prototype is made up of three parts: separation,

disinfection, and drying (Community Research and Development Information

Service [CORDIS], n.d.).

As a result, valuing eggshell biowaste will benefit both the environment

and the bottom lines of egg farmers.

Effects of Eggshells on Our Skin

Eggshell is a natural material that has been demonstrated to boost

cellular activity and collagen formation. Furthermore, eggshell protects skin

aging and lowers UV-light and inflammation-related damage. Eggshell and its
membrane is made of insoluble protein keratin, which is found in feathers,

hair, horns, scales, and nails. Keratin has a high level of resistance to

physical, chemical, and biological processes. (Yoo et al. 2014). Eggshell has

been proposed for use in moisturizer, wound recovery, skin development, and

anti-wrinkle formulations (Park, Yoo & Shin, 2012).

Collagen restored stratum corneum water content and regulated

transepidermal water loss (TEWL) in UVB-irradiated rats and raised stratum

corneum water content and skin viscoelasticity in humans (Ohara, Ito, Iida &

Matsumoto 2009). Park et al. (2012) discussed that in a recent investigation,

they discovered that complete eggshell membrane exhibited a skin-whitening

effect due to its tyrosinase inhibitory and L-DOPA oxidizing properties. They

also used human keratinocyte (HaCaT) cells to confirm the wound-healing

properties of eggshell membrane hydrolysates. According to Kalman (2019),

the hydrolyzed eggshell membrane contains a number of bioactive

components that may affect hair, skin, and nail physiology and appearance.

Glycosaminoglycans are abundant in the eggshell membrane, for example.