MODULE 9

Measurement of Fluid Flow

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Identify the general types of flow meters used in

measuring fluid flow.
 Apply the theoretical background and problem-

solving skills needed to successfully analyse problems

involving fluid motive devices.
 Measurement of Flowing Fluids
 It is important to control & measure the amount of material
entering & leaving an industrial process. Since most materials
are in the form of fluids, they flow in pipes or conduits, hence
it is essential to measure the rate at which they are flowing.
SELECTION OF METERS is based on
1. applicability of the instrument to the specific problem
2. installed cost & costs of operation
3. range of flow rates it can accommodate, and
4. its inherent accuracy.

 FLOWMETERS:
Devices for measurement of the quantity of fluid flowing
per unit time, as in [m3/h, kg/h, etc] or of the velocity of flow,
as in [m/s].
 GENERAL TYPES
 OBSTRUCTION METERS
 Fluid meters that belong to this type indicate a flow
caused by a change in pressure.
Examples:
 Full-bore meters (Venturi, orifice, flow nozzle)

 Insertion meters (Pitot tubes)

http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/sheey-155231-venturi-meter-education-ppt-powerpoint/
Venturi Meter
Orifice Meter
 Flow Nozzle
PITOT TUBES
 Used to measure the local velocity at a given point
in the flow stream & not the average velocity in the
pipe.
 Pitot Tube
VARIABLE AREA METER
 An area meter is one in which the pressure drop is
constant and the reading is dependent upon a variable
flow area.
 Example: Rotameter
 OTHER TYPES
 WEIR OR NOTCH
 Theflow rate depends on the depth of the liquid in the
notch.
 Modified Francis formula
Rectangular Weir:
Weir or Notch

where q = volume flow rate, L = crest length, h0 = weir head, and g = local
acceleration due to gravity.

Perry’s Handbook
p. 10-24

Narrow rectangular notches (h0 > L) have been found to give about 93
percent of the discharge predicted by the Francis formula.
 Triangular-Notch Weir

The triangular-notch weir has the advantage that a single

notch can accommodate a wide range of flow rates.
or Notch
WeirSystems

Perry’s Handbook p. 10-24

First Order
 TURBINE METER
 The device consists of a small in-line turbine placed
inside a section of pipe. The rotational speed, which is
transmitted electrically to a recorder, depends on the
flow rate.
 HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER
A very small and thin electrically heated wire
suspended between two supports is introduced into a
moving stream. The resistance of the wire depends on
its temperature, which is correlated to local velocity.
 MISCELLANEOUS
 Magneticfield, vortex shedding, thermal flow meter,
target meter, etc.
 VORTEX SHEDDING METER
 Principle: Pitot Tube
 The opening of the impact tube is normal to the direction of
flow & the static tube has its opening parallel to the direction
of flow. The fluid flows into the opening at point 2 , P builds up,
& then remains stationary at this point, called STAGNATION
PT.
 The diff in the stagnation P at pt 2 & the static P measured by
the static tube represents the P rise associated with the
deceleration of the fluid. The manometer measures this small P
rise.
 If fluid is incompressible: MEB from 1 to 2 yields
Pt 1 = vel is undisturbed before fluid decelerates
ΔP g
2 = vel is zero Δαu 2
Δz  ( i.e. u2-=
h f 0 W
) s
ρ gc 2g c
 A. PITOT TUBES
 simplifying, ΔP u1
2
u  u1  C p 2g c
ΔP

ρ 2g c ρ

 Cp = a dimensionless coefficient to take into account

deviations from MEB & generally varies from 0.98 to 1.
 From the principle of fluid statics:
 Equiv eq fr HB g
ΔP  Δh ( ρ A  ρ )
gc
 A. PITOT TUBES
 Where A = density of fluid in manometer
h = manometer reading
 This equation can also be used to approximate gas flow
at moderate vel & P changes of @ 10% or less of total P.
 Since pitot tube measures point velocity only, several

methods are used to get uave in the pipe.

Method 1- tube is positioned along center of pipe where
u1=umax then obtain uave by solving for Re  D u max ρ
max
μ
then refer to figures to get
u
Refer to: Fig 5.8/ MSH or Fig 10.13/HB  φ(Re max )
u max
 A. PITOT TUBES
note: laminar flow u

 0.5
u max

turbulent flow u
 0.82 {Fig 10 - 13/Perry' s HB}
u max

Method 2- readings are taken at several known positions in

the pipe cross-section, solve for uave using graphical or
numerical integration.
Velocity Ratio vs Re (smooth)
Fig 10-13 HB
 Gases (Pitot tubes)
 With gases at velocities above 60 m/s (about 200 fps),
compressibility becomes important, and the following equation
should be used:
 Vo is the velocity at the point where the tip is located

 Where k is the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to

that at constant volume. (refer to HB/p.10-11)
 Coeff C is usually close to 1.00 for simple pitot tubes
 And ranges between 0.98-1.00 for pitot-static tubes (see fig
10-12)
Fig 10-12 Perry’s Handbook
 B. VENTURI METERS
• The best-known application of the energy equation must be in
the flow measurement device called the Venturi meter.
• It was invented by Herschel but named after Venturi.
• It exploits the drop in pressure that occurs when a liquid or
a gas that flows along a pipe passes through a smooth
contraction to make it into a flow meter.
• This is simple in principle but has to be applied in practice. All
the work needed to make a practical flow meter was done at
least 100 years ago and nothing has changed. You can find it
all in Gibson’s book of 1912 called “Hydraulics and its
applications”.
 SAMPLE VENTURI METERS

A high pressure Venturi Tube - The design, calculations and construction are performed in
accordance with the main international standards, such as ISO, ASME, DIN, BS and UNI.
 Applications
Pressure in pipeline

Robotic fuelling system

Pressure in a tank
Spirometry: PCB board
B. VENTURI METER
B. Venturi meter
Sample design
 B. Venturi meter
 usually inserted directly into a
pipeline. A manometer or other
device is connected to the two P taps
shown & measures the P diff P1-P2 bet
points 1 & 2. The standard dimensions for the
 u1 = ave vel at pt 1, D = D1 meter are:
inside pipe diameter Entrance cone angle (2a1) = 21+ 2o
Exit cone angle (2a2) = 5 to 15o
 u2 = ave vel at throat, D = D2 Throat length = one throat diameter
throat diameter

 there is little frictional loss due to

contraction & expansion since
narrowing down is gradual
 B. Venturi meter
 MEB:
 assume, horizontal, turbulent flow, incompressible fluid
and hf = 0 .
 Hence ΔP Δu 2 P1  P2 u 2 - u1
2 2
- 
ρ 2g c ρ 2g c
 from continuity eqn: (constant density) u1S1  u 2S2
π 2 π 2
u1  D1   u 2  D 2 
4  4 
 Combining: u2 
1  - ΔP 
2g c  
D 
4
 ρ 
1 -  2 
 D1 
B. Venturi meter
 To account for small friction loss:
u 
Cv
2g
- ΔP
2 c
 D2 
4 ρ
1 -  
 D1 

 For many meters & a Re > 104

 Cv = 0.98 for ID < 0.2 m
 = 0.99 for larger sizes
B. Venturi meter
 For COMPRESSIBLE FLOW: (because of adiabatic
contraction from P1 to P2)
v2 
Cv Y
2g c
- ΔP
 D2 
4 ρ1
1 -  
 D1 


m
Cv S2 Y
2g c
- ΔP
 D2 
4 ρ1
1 -  
 D1 
 Y = dimensionless expansion correction factor
(values obtained from graph / Fig 10-18/Perry’s HB)
 For the flow of gases, expansion factor Y, which
allows for the change in gas density as it expands
adiabatically from p1 to p2, is given by

 for venturi meters and flow nozzles.

 For vertical venturi meter:
Perry’s HB
Expansion factor chart/Geankoplis
 B. Venturi meter
In properly designed venturi meter, the permanent loss is  10% (-), this
represents POWER LOSS.

NOTE: Y can be calculated theoretically using Eqn 8.45/McCabe

For ordinary installations in a process plant, the venturi meter has

disadvantages:
 occupies considerable space

 expensive

 throat diameter is fixed so if flow rate is changed considerably,

inaccurate P diff may result

The orifice meter meets these disadvantages but at the price of a

larger power loss.
C. FLOW NOZZLES
 Bec of size & expense of a venturi tube, a smaller
device called flow nozzle is often used as the
primary element of a flowmeter.

 Such nozzles are designed to be clamped bet the

flanges of a pipe , generally possess rather abrupt
curvatures of the converging surfaces & essentially
venturi meters w/ diverging cones omitted.
(Converging entrance is altered to a more rounded
form.)
Flow Nozzle Section
Flow nozzle assembly
 Flow Nozzle Types
Flanged flow nozzle

Holder ring flow nozzle

Flow Section Design for Throat-Tap Nozzles

 The critical pressure ratio rc can be obtained from
the following theoretical equation, which assumes a
perfect gas and a frictionless nozzle:

 where k = ratio of specific heats Cp/Cv and β =

diameter ratio.
 This reduces, for β ≤ 0.2, to
 Under critical flow conditions, only the upstream
conditions p1, v1, and T1 need be known to
determine flow rate, which, for β ≤ 0.2, is given by
Measurement of metering error
 Hodgson number NH:

 where Q = volume of surge chamber and pipe

between metering element and pulsation source; n =
pulsation frequency; Δps = permanent pressure drop
between metering element and surge chamber; q =
average volume flow rate, based on gas density in
the surge chamber; and ps = pressure in surge
chamber.
 D. ORIFICE METERS
 measures average velocity

 The orifice for use as a metering device in a pipeline

consists of a concentric square-edged circular hole in a
thin plate which is clamped bet the flanges of the pipe.
 The min. section of the streamtube occurs not w/in the
orifice but downstream from it owing to the formation of a
vena contracta at section 2. This is the pt at w/c the P is
measured just downstream from metering element.
 Equation: MEB in pipe ΔP
ρ
-
Δu 2
2g c

 Where u1 = ave vel in pipe

u2 = vel at vena contracta= (vel at orifice, vo)
 at orifice: Co - ΔP
uo  2g c
 Do 
4 ρ
1 -  
 D1 

 where Co – determined by experiment

if Reo > 20,000
Co = 0.61
& (Do/D1) < 0.5
Eq’n 10-22 HB, weight rate of flow
 For compressible flow of gases:
 So = cross section of orifice

v
Co Y
2g c
- P 
D 
4 
1 -  o 
 D1 

m
Co So Y
2g c
- P 
D 
4 
1 -  o 
 D1 
 For the case of subsonic flow of a gas (rc < r <
1.0), the expansion factor Y for orifices is
approximated by
Y = 1 − [(1 − r)/k](0.41 + 0.35β4)
(Eq’n 10-23 HB)
 where r = ratio of downstream to upstream static
pressure (P2/P1), k = ratio of specific heats
(Cp/Cv), and β = diameter ratio.
FIG. 10-16 HB Coefficient of discharge for square-edged
circular orifices with corner taps. [Tuve and Sprenkle, Instruments,
6, 201 (1933).]
Orifice
 Permanent Pressure Loss:   (Do/D1)

 Loss = 0.73 (-) for (Do/D1) = 0.5

 Loss = 0.56 (-) for (Do/D1) = 0.65
 Loss = 0.38 (-) for (Do/D1) = 0.8
Sample Problem
1. Water at 500F is flowing through a 3-inch schedule 40
pipe at a rate of 150 gpm.
a) If a standard sharp-edged orifice 1 ¾ inches in
diameter is inserted in the line, what would be the
reading on a mercury manometer connected across
the orifice?
b) If a venturi meter with a throat diameter 1 ¾ inches
were used instead of the orifice, what would the
manometer read?
c) What would be the reading on each instrument if,
instead of water, an oil were flowing through the pipe
at the same rate, the oil having a density of 0.890
g/cc and a viscosity of 1.3 cP?
2. A pitot tube is used to measure the flow rate of
water at 20C in the center of a pipe having an
inside diameter of 102.3mm. The manometer
reading is 78mm of carbon tetrachloride at 20C.
The pitot tube coefficient is 0.98.
(a)Calculate the velocity at the center and the
average velocity.
(b)Calculate the volumetric flow rate of the water.
Sample Problem:
3. A venturi meter installed in a 200 mm dia pipe has
a throat dia of 150 mm. The upstream P is 250
kPa & the throat P 160 kPa when oil of s.g. of 0.8
flows through the pipe. If the coefficient of
discharge is 0.92, determine the vol & mass flow
rates.
Sample Problem
4. A sharp-edged orifice having a diameter of
0.0566 m is installed in a 0.1541 m pipe through
which oil having a density of 878 kg/m3 & a viscosity
of 4.1 cP is flowing. The measured P diff across the
orifice is 93.2 kPa. Calculate the vol flow rate [m3/h]
assuming Co is 0.61.
 Variable area meters - Rotameter
 In the variable head meters the area of constriction or orifice is constant
and the drop in pressure is dependent on the rate of flow. In the
variable area meter, the drop in pressure is constant and the flow rate is
a function of the area of constriction.
 A typical meter of this kind, which is commonly known as rotameter
consists of a tapered glass tube with the smallest diameter at the
bottom. The tube contains a freely moving float which rests on a stop at
the base of the tube. When the fluid is flowing the float rises until its
weight is balanced by the upthrust of the fluid, the float reaches a
position of equilibrium, its position then indicating the rate of flow. The
flow rate can be read from the adjacent scale, which is often etched on
the glass tube. The float is often stabilized by helical grooves incised into
it, which introduce rotation - hence the name. Other shapes of the floats -
including spheres in the smaller instruments may be employed
 Rotameter

 The pressure drop across the float is equal to its weight

divided by its maximum cross-sectional area in the horizontal
plane. The area for flow is the annulus formed between the
float and the wall of the tube.
 Rotameter
 This meter may thus be considered as an orifice meter with a
variable aperture, and the formula derived for orifice meter/
venturi meter are applicable with only minor changes.
 Both in the orifice-type meter and in the rotameter the pressure
drop arises from the conversion of pressure energy to kinetic
energy (recall Bernoulli's equation) and from frictional losses
which are accounted for in the coefficient of discharge.
 ΔP/(ρg) = u22/(2g) - u12/(2g)  1
 Continuity equation:
 A1 u 1 = A 2 u 2  2
 Rotameter
 Where A1 is the tube cross-section, and A2 is the cross-section
of annulus (area between the tube and float)
 From equn.1 and 2,

 -- 3
 The pressure drop over the float P, is given by:
 P = Vf(ρf - ρ)g / Af

 where Vf is the volume of the float, ρf the density

of the material of the float, and Af is the
maximum cross sectional area of the float in a
horizontal plane.
 Rotameter
 Substituting for P from eqn.4 in eqn.3, and for the flow
rate the equation is

 The coefficient CD depends on the shape of the float and

the Reynolds number (based on the velocity in the annulus
and the mean hydraulic diameter of the annulus) for the
annular space of area A2.
 In general, floats which give the most nearly constant
coefficient are of such a shape that they set up eddy
currents and give low values of CD.
 Rotameter
 The constant coefficient for the float Cd arises from turbulence promotion,
and for this reason the coefficient is also substantially independent of the
fluid viscosity. The meter can be made relatively insensitive to changes in
the density of the fluid by the selection of the density of float, ρf. If the
density of the float is twice that of the fluid, then the position of the float
for a given float is independent of the fluid density.
 Because of variable-area flowmeter relies on gravity, it must be installed
vertically (with the flow tube perpendicular to the floor).
 The range of a meter can be increased by the use of floats of different
densities. For high pressure work the glass tube is replaced by a metal
tube. When a metal tube is used or when the liquid is very dark or dirty
an external indicator is required.
 The advantage of rotameters are direct visual readings, wide range,
nearly linear scale, and constant (and small) head loss. It requires no
straight pipe runs before and after the meter.
 WEIRS (Perry’s HB Section10-23)
Liquid flow in an open channel may be metered by means of a weir,
which consists of a dam over which, or through a notch in which, the
liquid flows.
The terms “rectangular weir,” “triangular weir,” etc., generally refer to
the shape of the notch in a notched weir. All weirs considered here
have flat upstream faces that are perpendicular to the bed and walls
of the channel.
FIG. 10-21 Rectangular weir FIG. 10-22 Triangular weir
 Flow through a rectangular weir is given by
modified Francis formula:

 where q = volume flow rate, L = crest length, h0 =

weir head, and g = local acceleration due to
gravity.
 The discharge for sharp- or square-edged
triangular-notch weir is given by
END OF MODULE