2nd Term.

(Geography and Regional Planning)

Syllabus of Physical Geography.
Mid-Term and Final-Term.
1. Interior Structure.
2. Rocks.
3. Plate Tectonics.
4. Composition and Structure of Atmosphere.
5. Atmospheric Temperature and Pressure.
6. Global Circulation and Wind System.
7. Cyclones and Other Disturbance.
8. Atmospheric Moisture and Precipitation.
9. Air Mass and Fronts.

Physical Geography.

Definition:

Physical geography, as a branch of geography studies the interrelationships between mankind and the
natural elements of his environment, like relief, climate, forests, wild life, etc.

Scope:

Lithosphere.

Atmosphere:

Hydrosphere:

Biosphere:

Branches:

Geology…………………Geomorphology lithosphere.

Metrology…………….. (Climatology) Climate: Atmosphere.

Oceanography………..Hydrosphere.

Biogeography…………Biosphere.

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 Earth’s Internal Structure:

The earth is composed of three internal, concentric layers,

which are both physically and chemically different. The layers
are made up of different types of rocks, with their densities
increasing towards center of the Earth. The boundaries
between these layers were discovered through seismic waves
as these behave differently while travelling through different
material. The layers are the crust, mantle and core.

1. Crust: Crust is the Earth's hard outer shell. Compared

to other layers, it is much thinner and floats upon the
softer & denser mantel. Crust is all solid but its
material is not similar all around. On the basis of
constituent material & density, it has two types:

a) Continental Crust

It is about 30km thick averagely and mainly made

up of light material called Sial (Silicon + Aluminium). The
dominant rock is granite.

b) Oceanic Crust

It is about 6–11km thick averagely and mainly

consists of heavy material called Sima (Silicon +
Magnesium). The dominant rock is basalt.

2. Mantle

It is about 2900km thick. Its temperature steadily

increases with depth, called geothermal gradient. This
gradient creates different rock behaviors which makes the
mantle two zones:

a) Upper Mantle

It is a lot thinner than the lower mantle. Rocks are cool and brittle enough to break under stress
and produce earthquakes. Temperature ranges from 1400° to 3000°C. Rocks density is between
3.4g/cm³ and 4.3g/cm³.

b) Lower Mantle

The average temperature is about 3000°C and the density is between 4.3g/cm³ and 5.4g/cm³.
Rocks in the lower mantle are soft and flow when subjected to forces instead of breaking.

3. Core

This begins about 2900km below the Earth's surface. It is thought to be composed mainly of iron
and nickel alloy. This composition is assumed based upon calculations of its density and upon the fact
that many meteorites (which are thought to be portions of the interior of a broken planetary body) are

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iron-nickel alloys. The core is Earth's source of internal heat because it contains radioactive materials
which release heat as they break down into more stable substances. The core is divided into two
different zones:

a) Outer Core

It is about 2250km thick and has a temperature around 3700°C. Because the Earth rotates, the
outer core spins around the solid inner core and that causes the earth's magnetism. It is liquid because
the temperatures are adequate to melt the iron-nickel alloy.

b) Inner Core

It is the Earth’s centre and is about 1300km thick. The inner core is solid even though its
temperature is higher than the outer core. The tremendous pressure produced by the weight of the
overlying rocks is strong enough to crowd the atoms tightly together and prevents the liquid state.

Ostrich and Eggs Ostrich Egg

Ostrich Egg Hen Eggs

Rocks: Definition and Types

Definition:

A naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals, which is part of the Earth’s crust is called “Rock”.

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Types:

There are three major rock types –igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

1. Igneous Rocks
 These are formed from molten material that has cooled and solidified.

 When rocks are buried deep within the Earth, they melt because of high temperature.

 The molten material (called “magma” inside and “lava” outside the Earth) can then flow upward
or even be erupted from a volcano onto the Earth's surface.

 Igneous rocks have further two main types: i) plutonic rocks, ii) volcanic rocks.

a. Plutonic Rocks

 Plutonic rocks are formed underground; hence are also called “intrusive igneous rocks”.

 They involve the "intrusion" or insertion of magma between

other rocks, which then cools slowly below the surface, usually
at depths of thousands of feet.

 Plutonic rocks are named after Pluto, the Greek god of the
underworld.

 When magma cools slowly inside the Earth, the crystals are large
(visible to the naked eye) and the rocks formed are coarse-
grained.

 Granite is the most common rock of this type.

a. Volcanic Rocks

 Volcanic rocks are formed exposed on ground; hence are also called
“extrusive igneous rocks”.

 They involve the "extrusion" or eruption of magma, which then is

called "lava." The lava cools upon or very close to the Earth surface.
When magma cools rapidly in open air, the crystals are extremely
small (visible only under microscope) and the rocks formed are fine-
grained.

 Basalt is the most common rock of this type.

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 2. Sedimentary Rocks
 These rocks are formed by the deposition of material at
the Earth's surface and within bodies of water.

 Particles that form a sedimentary rock by accumulating are

called sediment. This sediment can include minerals, small
pieces of plants and other organic matter, such as remains of
dead organisms.

 Sedimentary rocks can also form from chemical precipitates,

such as salt.

 Before being deposited, sediment was formed

by weathering and erosion in a source area and then
transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, ice, mass
movement or glaciers which are called agents of denudation.

 Sediments are deposited in layers as strata, forming a structure

called bedding.

 The sediment is compressed over a long period of time before

consolidating into solid layers of rock.

 Strata of sedimentary rocks may be horizontal, tilted, or folded.

Common examples of sedimentary rocks are conglomerate,
sandstone, siltstone, shale, and limestone.

3. Metamorphic Rocks
To metamorphose in Latin means “to change form”.

Metamorphic rocks are formed when any type of previously

formed rocks (sedimentary, igneous, and even those which
were previously metamorphosed) are subjected to great
pressures and intense heat.

Metamorphic rocks form while deeply buried within the Earth's

crust.

The process of metamorphism does not melt the rocks, but

instead transforms them into denser, more compact rocks. New
minerals are created either by rearrangement of mineral
components or by reactions with fluids that enter the rocks.

Different rocks have their own metamorphic counterparts.

Sedimentary rocks, such as limestone and dolostone change to
marble; coal becomes diamond; and sandstone turns to quartzite.
The igneous rocks granite and diorite change to gneiss.

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 Plate-Tectonic Theory:

The Plate-Tectonic Theory was developed during the 1960s & 70s. According to the theory, the
lithosphere is broken into 7 large, rigid pieces called “plates”. Their size and position change over time.
Their edges, where they move against each other, are sites of intense geologic activity, such as
earthquakes, volcanism, and orogeny.

World Major Tectonic Plates

The world major plates are enlisted below:

1. African Plate

2. North American Plate

3. South American Plate

4. Eurasian Plate

5. Australian Plate

6. Antarctic Plate

7. Pacific Plate

Several minor plates also exist, including the

Indian, Arabian, Nazca, and Philippines plates.

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Plate Movements

The plates are all moving in different directions and

at different speeds (from 2 cm to 10 cm per year--
about the speed at which our fingernails grow)
relative to each other. The place where any two
plates meet is called “plate boundary”. Boundaries
have different titles depending on how the two
plates are moving relative to each other.

There are 3 types of plate boundaries:

i. Divergent Boundary: Where plates split and pull

apart due to tensional forces.

ii. Convergent Boundary: Where plates collide due to

compressional forces.

iii. Transform Boundary: Where plates slide past each other due to shear stress.

Supporting evidences of Plate-tectonics Theory

The following are the evidences to support plate tectonic theory:

a. The Shapes Match

The continents look as if they were pieces of a giant jigsaw puzzle that could fit together to make one
giant super-continent. The bulge of Africa fits the shape of the coast of North America while Brazil fits
along the coast of Africa beneath the bulge.

b. The Plants and Animals Match

Same plant and animal fossils found on the confronting coastlines of South America and Africa. This was
the most compelling evidence that the two continents were once joined.

c. The Rocks Match

Broad belts of rocks in Africa and South America are the same type.

d. The Ice Matches

Glacial striations on rocks show that glaciers moved from Africa toward the Atlantic Ocean and from the
Atlantic Ocean onto South America. Such glaciations are most likely if the Atlantic Ocean were missing
and the continents joined.

Atmospheric Temperature and Pressure

Temperature:

 Fahrenheit
 Celsius

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  Kelvin

A thermometer measures the speed at which the molecules of a substance are moving

On the basis of heat received by the earth, we may divide the earth into the following ‘heat zones’.

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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:

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Atmospheric pressure:

What is atmospheric pressure?

Atmospheric pressure, sometimes also called barometric pressure, is the pressure exerted by the
weight of air.

Air pressure is normally highest at sea level and decreases rapidly with increasing altitude.

Pressure Systems:

 Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled.

 This results in variations in the atmospheric pressure.
 The differences in atmospheric pressure causes the movement of air from high pressure to low
pressure, setting the air in motion.
 Air in horizontal motion is wind. The wind redistributes the heat and moisture across latitudes.

Air Pressure:

 Since air has mass, it also has weight. The pressure of air at a given place is defined as a force
exerted in all directions by the weight of all the air above it.
 The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the top of the
atmosphere is called the atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure is expressed in
various units.
 Atmospheric pressure, also called barometric pressure, force per unit area exerted by an
atmospheric column (that is, the entire body of air above the specified area). Atmospheric
pressure can be measured with a barometer (hence the commonly used synonym barometric
pressure), which indicates the height of a column of mercury that exactly balances the weight of
the column of atmosphere over the barometer.

Measurement of Air Pressure:

 Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the column of air at any given place and time. It is
measured by means of an instrument called barometer.
 The units used by meteorologists for this purpose are called millibars (mb).
 The normal pressure at sea level is taken to be about 76 Centimeters (1013.25 millibars).

The Coriolis Effect: Because earth rotates, any object moving freely near earth’s surface appears to
deflect to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The Coriolis
Effect has an important influence on the direction of wind flow.

Global Pressure Belts: The horizontal distribution of air pressure across the latitudes is characterized by
high or low-pressure belts.

These pressure belts are:

 The Equatorial Low-Pressure Belts.

 The Sub-tropic High-Pressure Belts.
 The Sub-polar Low-Pressure Belts.
 The Polar High-Pressure Belts.

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Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt:

 The sun shines almost vertically on the equator throughout the year.
 As a result, the air gets warm and rises over the equatorial region and produce equatorial low
pressure.
 This belt extends from the equator to 10N and 10S latitudes.
 Due to the excessive heating horizontal movement of air is absent here and only conventional
currents are there.
 Therefore, this belt is called doldrums (the zone of calm) due to the virtual absence of surface
winds.
 These are the regions of convergence because the winds flowing from subtropical high-pressure
belts converge here.
 This belt is also known as as-Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

Sub-tropical High-Pressure Belts:

 The sub-tropical high-pressure belts extend from the tropics to about 35 latitudes in both the
Hemispheres.
 In the northern hemisphere, it is called as the North sub-tropical high-pressure belt and in the
southern hemisphere, it is known as the South sub-tropical high-pressure belt.
 The existence of these pressure belts is because the uprising air of the equatorial region is
deflected towards poles due to the earth’s rotation.
 After becoming cold and heavy, it descends in these regions and gets piled up. This results in
high pressure.
 These are the regions of divergence because winds from these areas blow towards equatorial
and sub-polar low-pressure belts.

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Sub-polar low-Pressure Belts:

 The sub-polar low-pressure belts extend between 45 N and the Arctic Circle in the northern
hemisphere and between 45°S and the Antarctic Circle in the southern hemisphere.
 They are known as the North sub-polar low and the South sub polar low-pressure belts
respectively.

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  Winds coming from the sub-tropical and the polar high belts converge here to produce cyclonic
storms or low-pressure conditions.

Polar High-Pressure Belts:

 In the Polar Regions, the sun never shines vertically. Sunrays are always slanting here resulting
in low temperatures.
 Because of the low temperature, the air compresses and its density increases. Hence, high
pressure is found here.
 In the northern hemisphere, the belt is called the North polar high-pressure belt while it is
known as the South polar high-pressure belt in the southern hemisphere.
 Winds from these belts blow towards the sub-polar low-pressure belt.

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPERE

Atmosphere: The surface of the earth is surrounded by a blanket of air and this gaseous sphere
surrounding or hanging over the surface of the earth is called the atmosphere.

Structure of the Atmosphere: The vertical pattern of temperature is complex, consisting of a series of
layers in which temperature alternately decreases and increases. From the bottom up, these thermal
layers are called.

1. Troposphere

2. Stratosphere

3. Mesosphere

4. Thermosphere

5. Exosphere

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Troposphere:

 The bottom layer of the atmosphere, where temperature usually decreases with altitude, is
called the troposphere. The rate of decline in temperature is known as the lapse rate, and in the
troposphere the average lapse rate is 6.5 °C/1000 m.
 The troposphere is the layer of the atmosphere nearest to the earth’s surface.
 Gases, clouds and dust particles.
 Troposphere is the layer where all weather happens.
 The tropopause is positioned at an average height of about 12 km.
 This altitude varies with latitude; it is lowest over the poles (about 8 km) and highest above the
equator (about 16 km).

Stratosphere:

 Above the tropopause is the calmer, thinner, clear air of the stratosphere.
 The nearly total absence of water vapor in this this layer prevents the formations of clouds.
 The ozone layer (ozonosphere) lies within the stratosphere.
 Shielding the surface of the earth from ultraviolet radiation.
 Upper limit around 50 km.

Mesosphere:

 Above the stratosphere, in the altitudinal zone between about 50 and 80 km, lies the layer of
decreasing temperatures called the mesosphere
 This is the coldest layer of the atmosphere.

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  This layer protects the earth from meteors. They burn up in this area.

Meteor (from the ancient Greek – “heavenly”) is an asteroid (small space object) or any other celestial
body that enters the atmosphere of the Earth and burns in it

Thermosphere:

 The thermosphere is found above 80 km.

 Temperatures in the thermosphere can be extremely high.
 Sunlight reduces molecules to individual electrically charged particles called ions in a process
known as ionization. Ionized particles reflect radio waves.
 Ionized particles penetrate the thermosphere, creating bright sheet-like displays of light called
the aurora borealis in the Northern Hemisphere and the aurora Australia in the Southern
Hemisphere.

Exosphere:

 The outermost layer.

 The normal concept of temperature no longer applies.

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE:

The atmosphere is made up of different gases, water vapour and dust particles

The composition of pure, dry air at lower elevations is simple and uniform, and the concentrations of
the major components are basically constant. Certain minor gases and nongaseous particles vary from
place to place and from time to time, however, as does the amount of moisture in the air.

The Gases:

Except for water vapour present, the composition of the atmosphere is practically uniform. Whenever a
sample is taken, the dry air (after it has been freed from water vapour), has very nearly the following
constitution:

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  The atmosphere is a mixture of different gases. It contains life-giving gases like Oxygen for
humans and animals and carbon dioxide for plants.
 Plants require carbon dioxide to survive while animals and many other organisms need oxygen
for their survival.
 The atmosphere supplies these life giving gases.
 It helps in stopping the ultraviolet rays harmful to the life.
 Nitrogen and oxygen are the two main gases in the atmosphere and 99 percentage of the
atmosphere is made up of these two gases.
 Other gases like argon, carbon dioxide, neon, helium, hydrogen, etc. form the remaining part of
the atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide:

 Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very important gas.

 It is transparent to the incoming solar radiation (insolation) but opaque to the outgoing
terrestrial radiation.
 It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and reflects back some part of it towards the earth’s
surface.
 Carbon dioxide is largely responsible for the greenhouse effect.

Ozone gas:

 Ozone is another important component of the atmosphere found mainly between 10 and 50 km
above the earth’s surface.
 It acts as a filter and absorbs the ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun and prevents them from
reaching the surface of the earth.
 The amount of ozone gas in the atmosphere is very little and is limited to the ozone layer found
in the stratosphere.

Water Vapour:

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  Gaseous form of water present in the atmosphere is called water vapour.
 It is the source of all kinds of precipitation.
 The amount of water vapour decreases with altitude. It also decreases from the equator
towards the poles.
 Water is present in variable amounts in the atmosphere, from 0% to 4%
 Its maximum amount in the atmosphere could be up to 4% (humid, tropical regions).
 Water vapour reaches in the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation
takes place in the oceans, seas, rivers, ponds and lakes while transpiration takes place from the
plants and trees.

Dust Particles:

 Dust particles are generally found in the lower layers of the atmosphere.
 These particles are found in the form of sand, smoke, oceanic salt, ash, etc.
 Particles of dust, salt, smoke, ash and other solids make up a small percentage of the
atmosphere and are called particulates.
 Particles provide starting points (or nuclei) for water vapour to condense on
 These dust particles help in the condensation of water vapour.
 During the condensation, water vapour gets condensed in the form of droplets around these
dust particles and thus clouds are formed.

Precipitation

Precipitation:

 The release of moisture from the air is known as precipitation

 Water that falls on to the earth’s surface is called precipitation

Condensation: Condensation is the change of phase from gas to liquid. To condense into a liquid, a gas
must have a surface to condense on. In the atmosphere, this surface is provided by particles suspended
in the air, such as salt, dust, or smoke, called condensation nuclei. Water vapour in the air condenses
when the air is cooled to the dew point and there are condensation nuclei on which condensation can
form.

The term precipitation applies to the forms of moisture which come out of clouds and fall to the ground.
When moist laden air rises upwards, it is cooled and condensation starts below dew point.

Clouds are formed, Water droplets are formed around dust or salt particles present in the air.

After sometime, the size of the water droplets increases to such an extent that the air resistance cannot
hold the water drops and they fall on the earth as rain or snow under the influence of gravitational
force.

What is precipitation?

 The process of continuous condensation helps the condensed particles to grow in size.

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  When the resistance of the air fails to hold them against the force of gravity, they fall on to the
earth’s surface.
 So after the condensation of water vapour, the release of moisture is known as precipitation.
This may take place in liquid or solid form.

TYPES OF PRECIPITATION:

1. Rain
2. Drizzle
3. Sleet
4. Glaze
5. Snow
6. Hail

Rain:

 Precipitation in the form of drops of water is called rainfall.

 Rain is usually expressed in millimeters (mm) or inches (in).

Drizzle:

 Very fine droplets.

 Rainfall with droplets less than 0.5 mm in diameter.

Sleet:

 Clear pellets of ice.

 Raindrops freeze as they fall through layers of air at below-freezing temperatures

Snow:

 Fine flakes of snow fall when the temperature is less than 0°C.
 Formation of ice crystals on condensation nuclei at temperatures below freezing

Hail:

 Balls of ice ranging in size.

 A hailstone is characterized by a layered onion like structure which is thought to result from a
cycle of descent and ascent with in a cloud.
 Again and again hailstones are hurled up by updrafts in thunderstorms and then fall through
layers of air that alternate above and below freezing. Each cycle adds a layer to the hailstone.
The more violent the updrafts, the larger and heavier the hailstone can become before falling.
 Sometimes damaging crops, trees, glasshouses and injuring people and livestock

Cyclone and Anticyclone

Cyclone:

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Low pressure centers are called cyclones.

Cyclone, any large system of winds that circulates about a center of low atmospheric pressure in a
counterclockwise direction north of the Equator and in a clockwise direction to the south.

Anticyclone:

A high pressure center is known as an anticyclone.

Anticyclones, wind systems that rotate about a high-pressure center. Anticyclones are so called because
they have a flow opposite to that of cyclones, with the winds rotating clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern.

Humidity:

Air Humidity:

Humidity is the amount of moisture in the air.

The term humidity refers to the amount of water vapour present in the air.

Humidity varies from place to place.

Amount of water vapour (Humidity) is measured by an instrument called Hygrometer.

Absolute and Relative Humidity:

 The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is often expressed as absolute humidity or
relative humidity.

Absolute Humidity:

 The actual amount of the water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as the absolute
humidity.
 It is water vapour per unit volume of air and is expressed in terms of grams per cubic meter.

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  The absolute humidity differs from place to place on the surface of the earth.
 As one moves from the equator towards the poles the absolute humidity declines.

Relative Humidity:

 The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as compared to its full capacity at a
given temperature is known as the relative humidity.
 “How much water vapour any particular parcel of air contains compared with the amount it
could contain”
 It is the ratio of amount of water vapour actually present in a certain volume of air at a
particular temperature to the amount of water vapour required to saturate the same air at the
same temperature.
 With the change of air temperature, the capacity to retain moisture increases or decreases and
the relative humidity is also affected.
 Air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be 'saturated’. At this
temperature, the air cannot hold any additional amount of moisture. Thus, relative humidity of
the saturated air is 100%.
 If the air has half the amount of moisture that it can carry, then it is unsaturated and its relative
humidity is only 50%.

Dew point:

 The air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be saturated.
 It means that the air at the given temperature is incapable of holding any additional amount of
moisture at that stage.
 The temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample of air is known as dew point.
 Dew point occurs when Relative Humidity = 100%.

Air Mass and Fronts:

Air Mass: A large body of air that has nearly uniform conditions of temperature and humidity.

An air mass is a large body of air with generally uniform temperature and humidity. The area over which
an air mass originates is what provides its characteristics. The longer the air mass stays over its source
region, the more likely it will acquire the properties of the surface below.

A region of the atmosphere in which the characteristics of the air at any given of level are fairly uniform
is called an air mass. An air mass is identified by its average air pressure, air temperature, and moisture
content. The boundaries between air masses, where rapid changes occur, are called fronts.

The characteristics of an air mass are the result of the geographical region over which it formed, or its
source region.

Air resting on, or moving very slowly over, a region tends to take on the characteristics of that region.
For example, air that sits over the Gulf of Mexico in the summer is resting on very warm water. As a
result the air becomes warm and moist, just like the Gulf of Mexico.

In general, air masses that form near the poles are cold, and those that form near the equator are warm.
Air masses that form over water are moist; those form over land, dry.

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Source region of air mass:

An air mass source region is the region over which an air mass forms and takes on its characteristic
temperature and moisture.

The longer the air mass stays over its source region, the more likely it will acquire the properties of the
surface below.

Air masses form over large surfaces with uniform temperatures and humidity, called source regions. Low
wind speeds let air remain stationary long enough to take on the features of the source region, such as
heat or cold. When winds move air masses, they carry their weather conditions (heat or cold, dry or
moist) from the source region to a new region.

Meteorologists identify air masses according to where they form over the Earth. Like: arctic, tropical,
polar and equatorial. Arctic air masses form in the Arctic region and are very cold. Tropical air masses
form in low-latitude areas and are moderately warm. Polar air masses take shape in high-latitude
regions and are cold. Equatorial air masses develop near the Equator, and are warm.

Air masses are also identified based on whether they form over land or over water. Maritime air masses
form over water and are humid. Continental air masses form over land and are dry.

Fronts:

 The boundary between two air masses

 A front is a transition zone between two air masses.
 An air mass usually has a sharply defined boundary between itself and a neighboring air mass.
This discontinuity is termed a front.
 Whenever air masses of different characteristics such as humidity and temperature, are in
contact, the boundary zone between them is called a front.
 Surface of contact between two unlike air masses is called a front.

Frontogenesis: Frontogenesis, in meteorology, refers to the formation or strengthening of an

atmospheric front.

Or

The formation or development or creation of a front is known as Frontogenesis

Frontolysis: The process of disappearance or dissipation or dissolution or weakening of an atmospheric

front is known as frontolysis.

The End.

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