Question 1

a) Rocks formed by cooling, crystallization and solidification of magma are known as igneous rocks.
Based on formation and mode of occurrence, igneous
rocks can be divided in to two as:
Intrusives: Magma solidify inside the Earth’s crust to
form intrusive igneous rocks. Undergo slow cooling and
form large crystals. Eg: volcanic rocks, pyroclastic rocks.
Extrusives: Extrusive igneous rocks are formed by lava
being crystallized on the Earth’s surface. Undergo faster
cooling and therefore form tiny crystals. Eg: hypabyssal
rocks and plutonic rocks.

b)
I. Magma is referred to as molten rock within the Earth, whereas lava is molten rock on the surface of
the Earth. It is the same substance, and the only difference is where it is found.
II. Vesicular and Amygdaloidal are both show cavity structures. However, vesicular texture shows
unfilled cavities in rocks and are usually very light weight. On the other hand, amygdaloidal texture is
seen with rocks with cavities that are filled with another mineral.
III. Both formations release igneous materials from inside the Earth’s crust to the Earth surface. But
fissure volcanoes are usually cracks on the earth, and sometimes they can be up to hundreds of
kilometers long. Central vent type volcanoes have mountain shape.
IV. Sills and Dikes are both igneous intrusions. Dikes are intrusive igneous rocks that were formed when
magma intruded vertically through existing rock and solidified. Sills are horizontal igneous rocks that
were formed by igneous intrusions that flowed horizontally through existing rock.
V. Scoria and Pumice are both igneous rocks that show vesicular cavity texture. The difference between
them is the pumice is formed by rhyolitic lava and scoria is formed by basaltic lava. They can easily be
identified since scoria rocks are dark colored and pumices are light colored, usually white.

c) Intrusive structures: When magma cools and solidifies in these spaces, Intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks are
formed deep beneath the Earth's surface. Intrusive features like stocks, laccoliths, sills, and dikes are formed
Extrusive structures:

d) As a whole, less that 5% of the rocks found in Sri Lanka are igneous rocks. Among this, granite is a popular
rock. Granite deposits are found in areas including Tonigala, Ambagaspitiya, Balangoda and Arangala. Not
only that, but there is also a massive apatite deposit in Eppawala, serpentinite in Ussangoda and pegmatite
deposits across all complexes.

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Question 2
a)

b)

i. "Strata" typically refers to larger, more significant layers of rock or sediment. These layers are often the
result of geological processes over long periods, and they can be thick and extensive. Think of strata as major
divisions in the Earth's crust, representing different geological eras or significant events.

On the other hand, "lamina" refers to thinner, more fine-grained layers within a stratum. Laminae are often
the result of smaller-scale processes, like changes in sedimentation rates or variations in environmental
conditions. They are like the smaller details within the broader story told by the strata.

ii. While both sandstone and limestone are sedimentary rocks, sandstone is composed mainly of sand-sized
grains and can have a gritty texture, while limestone is primarily made up of calcium carbonate and often has
a lighter color with various textures

iii. Conglomerate is composed of rounded pebbles or cobbles that are typically well-rounded due to
transportation by water, giving the rock a more smooth appearance.

Breccia, on the other hand, consists of angular or jagged fragments that are often cemented together after a
rock mass has undergone fracturing, creating a more angular and rugged texture in the rock.

iv. Agate, is a type of mineral known for its banded and often colorful appearance. Agate is commonly used in
jewelry and decorative items.

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 Chert is a type of sedimentary rock composed of microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline quartz. It often appears
as nodules or layers within other rocks

v. Both laterite and bauxite are associated with tropical weathering conditions and contain aluminum, laterite
is a type of soil and rock formed by weathering, while bauxite specifically refers to the aluminum ore that
forms through the weathering of aluminum-rich rocks, including laterite.

c) Biogenic sedimentary rocks are formed in various bodies of water and some times on the land as a result of vital
activity of animals and plants and also through the accumulation of remains of dead animals (mainly of the skeletal
remains of marine invertebrates) and plants.

• Carbonates – limestone, chalk

• Siliceous – diatomite, tripoli

• Caustobioliths – coal, bituminous series

d) Jurassic arkosic sandstone and shale are found in Tabbowa, Andigama, Pallama …etc

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3) a.
Metamorphism is a geological process wherein rocks undergo profound changes in mineralogy,
texture, and chemical composition due to alterations in temperature, pressure, or exposure to
chemically active fluids. This transformative process occurs within the Earth's crust and mantle,
driven by tectonic forces or the intrusion of molten rock. Regional metamorphism, associated
with large-scale tectonic movements, results in extensive modifications across broad geological
areas, often forming mountain ranges. On the other hand, contact metamorphism is localized
around magma intrusions, leading to distinct alterations in rocks based on their proximity to the
heat source. Throughout metamorphism, minerals within the original rock can undergo
recrystallization, and new minerals may emerge, giving rise to diverse metamorphic rocks like
slate, schist, and gneiss. Metamorphism plays a crucial role in the rock cycle, connecting the
formation of sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks, and offering insights into Earth's
dynamic geological history.

b.
Contact metamorphism
Alteration of rocks at or near the contact of a cooling pluton. Most important agents of
metamorphism are heat and circulating fluids. Pressures usually less important, often in the range
from 1-3 kilobars. Temperatures 300-800 degrees C. Produces a series of zones characterized by
the presence of one or more diagnostic minerals.
Since only a small area surrounding the intrusion is heated by the magma,
metamorphism is restricted to a zone surrounding the intrusion, called a metamorphic aureole.

The grade of metamorphism increases in all directions toward the intrusion. Because
temperature differences between the surrounding rock and the intruded magma are larger at
shallow levels in the crust, contact metamorphism is usually referred to as high temperature, low
pressure metamorphism. The rock produced is often a fine-grained rock that shows no foliation,
called a hornfels.
Burial Metamorphism
Burial metamorphism is a type of metamorphic process that occurs when rocks are subjected to
increased temperature and pressure due to burial beneath additional layers of sediment. This type
of metamorphism is often associated with the gradual accumulation of sediments over extended
periods of time. As sedimentary layers build up, the rocks beneath are buried to greater depths
within the Earth's crust, leading to changes in their mineralogy and texture.
This happens due to:
➢ Temperature and Pressure Increase
➢ Metamorphic Changes
Overall, burial metamorphism is a gradual process that takes place over long geological time
scales and plays a significant role in the evolution of sedimentary rocks and the Earth's crust. It is
distinct from other types of metamorphism, such as contact and regional metamorphism, in terms
of the mechanisms and conditions driving the changes in the rocks.
C)
Metamorphic facies is a concept in metamorphic geology that refers to specific mineral assemblages and
characteristic rock textures that form under certain temperature and pressure conditions during
metamorphism. These conditions are represented by specific zones on a graph known as a metamorphic
facies diagram. The diagram typically displays pressure on one axis and temperature on the other.
Each metamorphic facies represents a unique set of metamorphic conditions and is associated with a
particular range of temperatures and pressures. The concept helps geologists understand the metamorphic
history of a rock by identifying the specific facies it represents.
The most widely used classification scheme for metamorphic facies is the one developed by George W.
Barrow and John W. Spear. The common metamorphic facies include:

Zeolite Facies:
Low Pressure, Low Temperature: This facies is associated with low-pressure and low-temperature
conditions. It often involves the alteration of volcanic rocks and is characterized by the presence of
minerals like zeolite, prehnite, and pumpellyite.

Blueschist Facies:
Low to Intermediate Pressure, Low Temperature: Typically formed in subduction zones, this facies is
characterized by blue amphibole minerals such as glaucophane. It represents conditions of relatively low
temperature but higher pressures than the zeolite facies.

Greenschist Facies:
Low to Intermediate Pressure, Moderate Temperature:
This facies is characterized by green minerals such as chlorite, epidote, and actinolite. It is associated with
low to moderate pressures and moderate temperatures.
Amphibolite Facies:
Intermediate to High Pressure, Moderate to High Temperature:
This facies is characterized by the presence of minerals like amphibole and plagioclase feldspar. It
represents conditions of higher pressure and temperature than the greenschist facies.
Granulite Facies:
High Pressure, High Temperature:
This facies is associated with high-pressure and high-temperature conditions. It is characterized by
minerals such as pyroxene and plagioclase, and it often represents deep crustal metamorphism.
Eclogite Facies:
Very High Pressure, High Temperature:
Formed under extreme pressure conditions associated with subduction zones, this facies is characterized
by the presence of garnet and pyroxene. It represents some of the deepest and hottest conditions of
metamorphism.
Metamorphic facies diagrams help geologists interpret the conditions under which rocks have undergone
metamorphism and provide insights into the tectonic processes operating in the Earth's crust. The concept
of metamorphic facies is fundamental to understanding the complex history and evolution of rocks in the
Earth's lithosphere.
d)
Metamorphic rocks are classified based on their texture and mineral composition, and the texture is a key
aspect of their classification. The two main categories of texture for metamorphic rocks are foliated and
non-foliated.

Foliated Metamorphic Rocks:

Slate: Fine-grained metamorphic rock with well-developed cleavage. It often has a smooth, flat
appearance and is derived from the metamorphism of shale or mudstone.
Phyllite: Fine to medium-grained rock with a glossy sheen, often due to the presence of aligned mica
minerals. It is an intermediate stage between slate and schist in the metamorphic process.
Schist: Medium to coarse-grained rock with visible mineral grains, often dominated by mica minerals,
giving it a distinct foliated texture. Schistosity is a common feature.
Gneiss: Coarse-grained rock with alternating layers or bands of light and dark minerals. Gneissic banding
is a prominent feature, and the rock often displays strong foliation.
Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks:
Marble: Coarse-grained rock composed of recrystallized calcite or dolomite. It is derived from the
metamorphism of limestone or dolostone and often has a uniform, sugary texture.
Quartzite: Coarse-grained rock primarily composed of quartz grains that have recrystallized. It is often
formed from the metamorphism of sandstone and lacks foliation.
Hornfels: Fine-grained rock with a variety of mineral compositions, formed through contact
metamorphism. It lacks a foliated texture and typically has a granular appearance.
Anthracite Coal: Metamorphosed coal with a shiny, black, and often layered appearance. It has a high
carbon content and is the highest grade of coal.
These rocks undergo metamorphism due to changes in temperature, pressure, or the introduction of
chemically active fluids. Foliated rocks develop a planar alignment of minerals, giving them a layered or
banded appearance, while non-foliated rocks lack this alignment and typically have a more uniform
texture. The specific minerals present in these rocks depend on the original rock type and the conditions
of metamorphism.
4) a.
Geological structures, which include features like folds, faults, joints, and other deformations in the
Earth's crust, have various applications in geology and related fields. Some of the key applications
include:
Resource Exploration:
Hydrocarbon Exploration: Geological structures play a crucial role in the exploration for oil and
gas. Anticlines, synclines, faults, and other structural features can trap hydrocarbons, helping geologists
identify potential reservoirs.
Mineral Exploration: Certain geological structures can influence the formation and concentration of
mineral deposits. Understanding the structural geology of an area is important for locating ore bodies.
Engineering Geology:
Site Assessment for Construction: Knowledge of geological structures is essential for assessing the
stability and suitability of sites for construction projects. Engineers need to understand the potential for
landslides, subsidence, and other ground movements.
Tunneling and Mining: Geological structures influence the stability of tunnels and mines. Faults,
folds, and joints can impact excavation and the overall safety of underground structures.
Natural Hazard Assessment:
Earthquake Risk Assessment: Faults and seismic structures are crucial in understanding earthquake
hazards. Identifying active fault lines helps assess the potential for seismic activity in a region.
Landslide Prediction: Geological structures, such as joint patterns and slope angles, are important
factors in predicting and preventing landslides.
Environmental Science:
Groundwater Flow: Geological structures influence the movement of groundwater. Faults and
fractures can act as conduits or barriers to the flow of water, impacting groundwater availability and
quality.
Contaminant Migration: Understanding geological structures helps in predicting the migration of
contaminants in the subsurface, which is crucial for environmental remediation efforts.
Geotechnical Engineering:
Foundation Design: The study of geological structures is vital for designing stable foundations for
structures. Different rock and soil types, as well as structural features, impact foundation design
considerations.
Slope Stability Analysis: Geological structures influence the stability of slopes. Understanding the
orientation and characteristics of geological features helps in assessing slope stability and mitigating
potential failures.

Paleogeography and Earth History:

 Reconstructing Past Environments: Geological structures provide valuable information about the Earth's
history and past environmental conditions. Fossils and sedimentary structures within rocks offer insights
into ancient ecosystems and climates.
Education and Research:
Geological Studies: Geological structures are fundamental to the study of Earth's processes and history.
Researchers use structural geology to better understand tectonic processes, deformation mechanisms, and
the evolution of Earth's crust.
Overall, the applications of geological structures are diverse and contribute significantly to our
understanding of the Earth's dynamic processes and their practical implications in various fields.
b)

Limbs and the Axial Plane

When describing a fold, the term “right limb” or “left limb” is used to refer to rock layers that have
right and left sinusoidal curves. The following figure graphically illustrates the typical definition
for a limb.

Hinge Line, Point and Zone

The hinge line is defined as the imaginary line that connects points (touches the surface of)
maximum curvature of a fold. For cylindrical folds, the hinge line and fold axis are the same.

The hinge zone is an imaginary plane, as opposed to a line, where maximum curvature of the fold
occurs. A hinge plane is a surface of symmetry for cylindrical folds.

A hinge point is what you would observe on a cross sectional view of the hinge line on the surface
of the fold.
c)

Upright Fold
An upright fold is a type of geological fold where the axial plane is nearly vertical. In an upright
fold, the rock layers on either side of the fold are relatively symmetric, and the fold axis is close
to being vertical. Upright folds can take various forms, including anticlines, synclines, or
monoclines.
Recumbent Fold
A recumbent fold is a type of geological fold where the axial plane is nearly horizontal, and the
fold limbs are essentially parallel to the ground. In a recumbent fold, the rocks on either side of
the fold axis are overturned to the point where they lie almost horizontally or may even be
overturned beyond horizontal. This type of fold often results from intense tectonic forces causing
significant deformation and rotation of rock layers.
Inclined Fold
An inclined fold is a type of geological fold where the axial plane is inclined at an angle to the
horizontal. In an inclined fold, the fold axis is not vertical or horizontal but instead has a tilted
orientation. This type of fold is commonly found in regions where tectonic forces have caused
deformation and folding of the Earth's crust.
Overturned Fold
An overturned fold is a type of geological fold where the axial plane is inclined to the point
where the limbs (sides) of the fold are tilted beyond the vertical. In other words, one limb is tilted
past the vertical position, resulting in the inversion or overturning of the rock layers. Overturned
folds are commonly associated with intense tectonic forces that lead to significant deformation
and rotation of the Earth's crust.
 Based on interlimb angle

d)
Strike Slip Fault
A strike-slip fault is a type of geological fault where the movement is primarily horizontal and
parallel to the strike (the horizontal line) of the fault plane. Strike-slip faults are characterized by
lateral displacement, where blocks of rocks on either side of the fault move horizontally past
each other. This movement can occur in either a right-lateral or left-lateral direction, depending
on the sense of displacement when viewed from one side of the fault looking across it.
Reverse Fault
A reverse fault is a type of geological fault in which the hanging wall (the block of rock above
the fault plane) moves upward relative to the footwall (the block of rock below the fault plane).
Reverse faults are characterized by compressional tectonic forces that cause the crust to shorten,
leading to the upward movement of the hanging wall.
Dip Slip Fault
"Dip-slip fault" is a general term that encompasses faults where the primary movement is along
the dip direction of the fault plane. Dip is the angle at which the fault plane inclines from the
horizontal. Dip-slip faults are further categorized into two main types: normal faults and reverse
(or thrust) faults, depending on the direction of vertical movement.
Oblique Slip Fault
An oblique-slip fault is a type of geological fault in which the movement has both vertical (dip-
slip) and horizontal (strike-slip) components. In other words, oblique-slip faults combine
characteristics of both normal (extensional) and strike-slip (horizontal sliding) faults. The fault
plane is inclined, and motion can occur along both the dip (vertical) and strike (horizontal)
directions.