Chapter 3

Rock Types

In engineering Rock are significant for two major reasons:

 As building materials for constructions
 Highway embankment
 Railway embankment
 Earthen dam
 Filling in low lying areas
 As foundations on which the constructions are setting
 Building
 Bridge
 Highway
 Tunnel
 Canal
 Dam
What is a ‘rock’?
A rock is a solid mass of geological materials. Geological materials include individual
mineral crystals, inorganic non-mineral solids like glass, pieces broken from other rocks, and
even fossils. The geological materials in rocks may be inorganic, but they can also include
organic materials such as the partially decomposed plant matter preserved in coal. A rock can
be composed of only one type of geological material or mineral, but many are composed of
several types. Rocks are grouped into three main categories based on how they form. Igneous
rocks form when melted rock cools and solidifies. Sedimentary rocks form when fragments
of other rocks are buried, compressed, and cemented together; or when minerals precipitate
from solution, either directly or with the help of an organism. Metamorphic rocks form when
heat and pressure alter a pre-existing rock. Although temperatures can be very high,
metamorphism does not involve melting of the rock.
Types of rocks
According to their mode of origin, rocks are divided into three groups,
 The igneous,
 Metamorphic and
 Sedimentary rocks.
 Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are formed when hot molten rock material called magma solidifies. Magmas
are developed when melting occurs either within or beneath the Earth’s crust, that is, in the
upper mantle. They comprise hot solutions of several liquid phases, the most conspicuous of
which is a complex silicate phase. Thus, igneous rocks are composed principally of silicate
minerals.
Igneous rocks are formed when hot molten rock material called magma solidifies. Formed by
cooling and solidification of magma. Magmas are developed when melting occurs either
within or beneath the Earth’s crust, that is, in the upper mantle. They comprise hot solutions
of several liquid phases, the most conspicuous of which is a complex silicate phase. Thus,
igneous rocks are composed principally of silicate minerals. The rock formed by the
consolidation of magma are called primary rocks. It is the oldest and most abundant rocks in
the earth’s crust (90% of earth’s crust is composed of it. Igneous rocks are good for
dimension stone (tombstone etc.) because their resistance to weathering but need avoid
fractures
Igneous rocks may be divided into intrusive and extrusive types, according to their mode of
occurrence. In the former type, the magma crystallizes within the Earth’s crust, whereas in
the latter, it solidifies at the surface, having erupted as lavas and/or pyroclasts from a volcano.
The intrusions have been exposed at the surface by erosion. They have been further
subdivided on the basis of their size, that is, into major (plutonic) and minor (hypabyssal)
categories.
Intrusive
the magma crystallizes within (beneath) the Earth’s crust. Dykes are discordant igneous
intrusions, that is, they traverse their host rocks at an angle and are steeply dipping. As a
consequence, their surface outcrop is little affected by topography and, in fact, they tend to
strike a straight course. Dykes range in width up to several tens of metres but their average
width is on the order of a few metres.
Extrusive
Volcanic zones are associated with the boundaries of the crustal plates. Plates can be largely
continental, oceanic, or both. Oceanic crust is composed of basaltic material, whereas
continental crust varies from granitic in the upper part to basaltic in the lower. At destructive
plate margins, oceanic plates are overridden by continental plates. The descent of the oceanic
plate, together with any associated sediments, into zones of higher temperature leads to
melting and the formation of magmas. Such magmas vary in composition, but some, such as
andesitic or rhyolitic magma, may be richer in silica, which means that they are more viscous
and, therefore, do not liberate gas so easily. The latter type of magmas are often responsible
for violent eruptions. In contrast, at constructive plate margins, where plates are diverging,
the associated volcanic activity is a consequence of magma formation in the lower crust or
upper mantle. Solidifies at the surface, having erupted as lavas and/or pyroclasts from a
volcano. It is also called ―volcanic rocks‖. The intrusions have been exposed at the surface by
erosion.
Volcanic activity is a surface manifestation of a disordered state within the Earth’s interior
that has led to the melting of material and the consequent formation of magma. This magma
travels to the surface, where it is extravasated either from a fissure or a central vent. In some
cases, instead of flowing from the volcano as lava, the magma is exploded into the air by the
rapid escape of the gases from within it. The fragments produced by explosive activity are
known collectively as pyroclasts. Eruptions from volcanoes are spasmodic rather than
continuous. Between eruptions, activity may still be witnessed in the form of steam and
vapours issuing from small vents named fumaroles or solfataras. But, in some volcanoes,
even this form of surface manifestation ceases, and such a dormant state may continue for
centuries. To all intents and purposes, these volcanoes appear extinct. In old age, the activity
of a volcano becomes limited to emissions of gases from fumaroles and hot water from
geysers and hot springs.
At high pressures, gas is held in solution, but as the pressure falls, gas is released by the
magma. The rate at which it escapes determines the explosivity of the eruption. An explosive
eruption occurs when, because of its high viscosity (to a large extent, the viscosity is
governed by the silica content), the magma cannot readily allow the escape of gas until the
pressure that it is under is lowered sufficiently to allow this to occur. This occurs at or near
the surface.
The degree of explosivity is only secondarily related to the amount of gas the magma holds.
On the other hand, volatiles escape quietly from very fluid magmas.
Typical characteristics
The igneous rocks are characterized by:
 Presence of crystalline (glassy) minerals and interlocking structures
 The degree of crystallinity is one of the most important items of texture
 Formed from a high temperature rock melt
 They are usually massive, unstratified, unfossiliferous
 The volcanic igneous rocks are always extremely fine grained.
  Eg. Granite, basalt, gabbro, dolerite

Figure 3.1 Jointing in basalt, Northern Ireland

The Identification Chart of the Igneous Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks
The sedimentary rocks form an outer skin on the Earth’s crust, covering three-quarters of the
continental areas and most of the sea floor. They vary in thickness up to 10 km. Nevertheless,
they only comprise about 5% of the crust.
Most sedimentary rocks are of secondary origin, in that they consist of detrital material
derived by the breakdown of pre-existing rocks. Indeed, it has been variously estimated that
shales and sandstones, both of mechanical derivation, account for between 75 and 95% of all
sedimentary rocks. However, certain sedimentary rocks are the products of chemical or
biochemical precipitation whereas others are of organic origin. Thus, the sedimentary rocks
can be divided into two principal groups, namely, the clastic (detrital) or exogenetic, and the
non-clastic or endogenetic types. Nevertheless, one factor that all sedimentary rocks have in
common is that they are deposited, and this gives rise to their most noteworthy characteristic,
that is, they are bedded or stratified.
Most sedimentary rocks are formed from the breakdown products of pre-existing rocks.
Accordingly, the rate at which denudation takes place acts as a control on the rate of
sedimentation, which in turn affects the character of a sediment. However, the rate of
denudation is not only determined by the agents at work, that is, by weathering, or by river,
marine, wind or ice action, but also by the nature of the surface. In other words, upland areas
are more rapidly worn away than are lowlands. Indeed, denudation may be regarded as a
cyclic process, in that it begins with or is furthered by the elevation of a land surface, and as
this is gradually worn down, the rate of denudation slackens. Each cycle of erosion is
accompanied by a cycle of sedimentation.
The particles of which most sedimentary rocks are composed have undergone varying
amounts of transportation. The amount of transport together with the agent responsible, be it
water, wind or ice, play an important role in determining the character of a sediment. For
instance, transport over short distances usually means that the sediment is unsorted (the
exception being beach sands), as does transportation by ice. With lengthier transport by water
or wind, not only does the material become better sorted but it is further reduced in size.
Lithification
It involves two processes, consolidation and cementation. The amount of consolidation that
takes place within a sediment depends, first, on its composition and texture and, second, on
the pressures acting on it, notably that due to the weight of overburden. Consolidation of
sediments deposited in water also involves dewatering, that is, the expulsion of connate water
from the sediments. The porosity of a sediment is reduced as consolidation takes place, and,
as the individual particles become more closely packed, they may even be deformed.
Pressures developed during consolidation may lead to the differential solution of minerals
and the authigenic growth of new ones.
Fine-grained sediments possess a higher porosity than do coarser types and, therefore,
undergo a greater amount of consolidation. For instance, muds and clays may have original
porosities ranging up to 80%, compared to 45 to 50% in sands and silts. Hence, if muds and
clays could be completely consolidated (they never are), they would occupy only 20 to 45%
of their original volume. The amount of consolidation that takes place in sands and silts
varies from 15 to 25%.
Cementation involves the bonding together of sedimentary particles by the precipitation of
material in the pore spaces. This reduces the porosity. The cementing material may be
derived by partial intrastratal solution of grains or may be introduced into the pore spaces
from an extraneous source by circulating waters. Conversely, cement may be removed from a
sedimentary rock by leaching. The type of cement and, more importantly, the amount, affect
the strength of a sedimentary rock. The type also influences its colour. For example,
sandstones with siliceous or calcium carbonate cement are usually whitish grey, those with
sideritic (iron carbonate) cement are buff coloured, whereas a red colour is indicative of
hematitic (iron oxide) cement and brown of limonite (hydrated iron oxide). However,
sedimentary rocks are frequently cemented by more than one material.

Sedimentary rock is formed by consolidation and cementation of the sediments (due to

weathering) deposited under water. It is also called secondary rocks. Certain sedimentary
rocks are the products of chemical or biochemical precipitation whereas others are of organic
origin. The sedimentary rocks form an outer skin on the Earth’s crust, covering three-quarters
of the continental areas and most of the sea floor and comprise about 5% of the crust. Most
sedimentary rocks are of ―secondary origin,‖ in that they consist of detrital material derived
by the breakdown of pre-existing rocks. Indeed, it has been variously estimated that shales
and sandstones, both of mechanical derivation, account for between 75 and 95% of all
sedimentary rocks.
Thus, the sedimentary rocks can be divided into two principal groups, namely, the clastic
(detrital) or exogenetic, and the non-clastic or endogenetic types.
I. Clastic rocks: Also called mechanically formed rocks, it includes all those
sedimentary rocks that have been formed from pre-existing rocks by operation of four
processes of weathering and erosion, transportation, deposition, & Lithification.
Clastic sediments are broken fragments of pre-existing rocks ranging in size from clay
particle (0.002mm) to very large boulders (300mm).
Depending upon the size of constituent grains, clastic rocks are classified into:
i. Rudaceous rocks (formed from accumulation of gravels, cobbles, boulders)
ii. Arenaceous rocks (composed of almost of sand grains. When individual grains are
rounded the rock is called sandstone)
iii. Argillaceous rocks (made up of very fine grained sediments like silt and clay, eg.
Shale and mudstone
 II. Non-clastic rocks: includes those rocks formed by chemical precipitations of
minerals from water or by accumulation of remains of animals and plants.
Two groups of non-clastic rocks
1) CHEMICALLY FORMED (formed when mineral in solution is precipitated from
water)
a) Carbonate rocks: formed by chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate from sea
water. Eg. Limestone and dolomite are the most abundant.
b) Salt rocks: formed by the evaporation of saline lakes. Eg. Gypsum and anhydrite
c) Siliceous: formed when silica is precipitated from water. Eg. Flint, Chert, Jasper,
Agate
2. ORGANICALLY FORMED: compose mainly of remains of animals and plants. Eg.
Limestone, Coal

Typical characteristic of sedimentary rocks

The general characteristic features of sedimentary rocks are:
 Lamination or bedding or stratification
 Cross bedding or current bedding
 Presence of cementing material
 Occurrence of fossils
 Occurrence of mud cracks, porous
Sandstone: is a sedimentary rock that formed from the cementing together of sand sized
grains forming a solid rock. Quartz is the most abundant mineral that forms sandstone.
Calcium carbonate, silica, or iron has been added to the water that is in contact with the
sand grains.
Chert: is a very hard sedimentary rock that is usually found in nodules in limestone. It
probably formed from the remains of ancient sea sponges or other ocean animals that have
been fossilized. Silica has replaced the tissue forming the sedimentary rock.
Conglomerate: is a sedimentary rock that forms from the cementing of rounded cobble and
pebble sized rock fragments. Conglomerate is formed by river movement or ocean wave
action. The cementing agents that fill the spaces to form the solid rock are silica, calcite, or
iron oxides.
Engineering Aspects of Sedimentary rocks
 The main problem of sand stone are
 Low strength
  Durability
 High permeability and porosity
 Limestone develop caves

Figure 3.2
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are derived from pre-existing rock types and have undergone
mineralogical, textural and structural changes.
The changing conditions of temperature and/or pressure are the primary agents causing
metamorphic reactions in rocks.
Metamorphic rocks are formed when the pre-existing rocks have been changed in texture and
composition by increased temperature and pressure
During metamorphism recrystallization takes place essentially in the solid state and new
minerals and new textures are produced.
Metamorphic structures
Foliation: Laminated structure resulting from segregation of different minerals into layers
Schistosity: the Varity of foliation that occur in the coarse-grained metamorphic rocks. It
results from of parallel arrangement of platy and ellipsoidal mineral grains.
Gneissosity: band of coarse grained mineral
Types of metamorphic rocks
Slate & Mica schist: from mudstone (shale)
Green schist: from basalt and gabbro
Quartzite: Qtz arenite
Marble: limestone
Engineering Aspects of metamorphic rocks
For metamorphic rocks the stability of rock mass greatly affected by the foliation orientation;
Marble as a metamorphic rock from carbonate sedimentary rocks can cause similar problems,
eg., leakage of reservoirs, solution cavities, and channels.
Thermal metamorphism occurs around igneous intrusions so that the principal factor
controlling these reactions is temperature.
The rate at which chemical reactions take place during thermal metamorphism is exceedingly
slow and depends on the rock types and temperatures involved. Stress is the most important
factor in dynamic metamorphism. When a body is subjected to stresses that exceed its limit of
elasticity, it is permanently strained or deformed. If the stresses are equal in all directions,
then the body simply undergoes a change in volume, whereas if they are directional, its shape
is changed

Building Stones
A building stone may be defined as a sound rock that used in the construction of massive
structures as a dressed or undressed unit.
Uses of building stones:
i. Granites and marbles: used in the form of finely dressed blocks or slabs or columns in
monumental and costly buildings.
ii. Sandstones and limestone: used in forts, retaining walls, boundary walls
iii. Slates: used as roofing material for ordinary constructions
iv. Slates, sandstone: used as flooring or paving
v. Sandstone, limestone: used as stone/rubble masonry in bldg.
vi. Basalt: used for paving, railway ballast,
vii. Limestone: widely used for making lime and cement

ROCK CYCLES

The rock components of the crust are slowly but constantly being changed from one form to
another. The processes involved are summarized in the rock cycle. The rock cycle is driven
by two forces:
1. Earth’s internal heat, which causes material to move around in the core and mantle,
driving plate tectonics.
 2. The hydrological cycle– movement of water, ice, and air at the surface. The
hydrological cycle is powered by the sun.
The rock cycle is still active on Earth because our core is hot enough to keep the mantle
moving, the atmosphere is relatively thick, and there is liquid water. On some other planets or
their satellites (e.g., Mercury), the rock cycle is virtually dead because the core is no longer
hot enough to drive mantle convection, and there is no atmosphere or liquid water.
We can start anywhere we like to describe the rock cycle, but it’s convenient to start with
magma. Magma is melted rock located within the Earth. Rock can melt at between about 800
°C and 1300 °C, depending on the minerals in the rock, and the pressure the rock is under. If
it cools slowly within the Earth (over centuries to millions of years), magma forms intrusive
igneous rocks. If magma erupts onto the surface, we refer to it as lava. Lava cools rapidly on
Earth’s surface (within seconds to years) and forms extrusive igneous rocks.

Figure 3.3 The rock cycle describes processes that form the three types of rock: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic. These same processes can turn one type of rock into another.
Source: Karla Panchuk (2017) CC BY-SA 4.0
Figure 3.4 Lava flowing from Kīlauea Volcano, Hawai`i. Source: J. D. Griggs, U. S.
Geological Survey (1985) Public Domain
Mountain building lifts rocks upward where they are acted upon by weathering. Weathering
includes chemical processes that break rocks apart, as well as physical processes. Figure 3.5
shows the result of rocks in mountains being broken apart when water gets into cracks,
freezes, and forces the cracks wider. Uplift through mountain building is how rocks once
buried deep within Earth can be exposed at Earth's surface.
 Figure 3.5 Mountains being broken apart by the wedging action of ice near La Madaleta
Glacier, Spain. Source: Luis Paquito (2006) CC BY-SA 2.0
The weathering products — mostly small rock and mineral fragments — are eroded,
transported, and then deposited as sediments. Transportation and deposition occur through
the action of glaciers, streams, waves, wind, and other agents.
Sediments are deposited in stream channels, lakes, deserts, and the ocean. Some depositional
settings result in characteristic sedimentary structures, such as the ripples that formed when
flowing water moved sand along the bottom of the South Saskatchewan River (Figure 3.6).
Unless they are re-eroded and moved along, sediments will eventually be buried by more
sediments. At depths of hundreds of metres or more, the sediments become compressed,
forcing particles closer together. Mineral crystals grow around and between the particles,
binding them together (cementing them). The hardened cemented sediments are sedimentary
rock. Figure 3.7 shows an example of an ancient sedimentary rock in which ripple structures
are preserved, and visible in cross-section as wavy lines
Figure 3.6 Sand ripples along the South Saskatchewan River, near Saskatoon SK. Source:
Karla Panchuk (2008) CC BY-SA 4.0

Figure 3.7 Ripples preserved in 1.2 Ga old sandstone. Notice the wavy lines above the coin.
This is a side view of the ripples. Source: Anne Burgess (2008) CC BY-SA 2.0
Rocks that are buried very deeply within the crust can reach pressures and temperatures much
higher than those at which sedimentary rocks form. Existing rocks that are heated up and
squeezed under those extreme conditions are transformed into metamorphic rocks (Figure
3.8). The transformation to a metamorphic rock can happen through physical changes, such
as when the minerals making up an existing rock re-form into larger crystals of the same
mineral. It can also happen through chemical changes, when minerals within the rock react to
form new minerals.

Figure 3.8 Limestone, a sedimentary rock formed in marine waters, has been altered by
metamorphism into this marble visible on Quadra Island, BC. Source: Steven Earle (2015)
CC BY 4.0