ELS CHAPTER 3

EARTH: STRUCTURE AND SUBSYSTEM

THE EARTH’S FORMATION AND LAYERS

 The final step in differentiation of Earth. During the differentiation, heavy or dense
materials like nickel (Ni) and iron (Fe) sink to the center of Earth. Light or dense materials rise to
the surface.

CORE: INNER AND OUTER

Inge Lehmann, a seismologist, discovered in 1936 that the earth has a solid inner core.

Inner Core
 Radius of 1250 kilometers.
 Consist of iron-nickel alloy and it is magnetic.
 Temperature 6000c, almost as hot as the sun.
 The boundary between the inner core and outer core is referred to Lehmann discontinuity

Outer Core
 Consist of iron-nickel
 Radius of 2300 kilometers thick.
 Temperature 4000c – 5000c
 Because of very high temperature, the outer core is liquid.

MANTLE: LOWER AND UPPER

 The mantle is a layer between the crust and the outer core.
 Earth's mantle is a silicate rocky shell with an average thickness of 2,886 kilometers
(1,793 mi).
 The mantle makes up about 84% of Earth's volume.
 It is predominantly solid but in geological time it behaves as a very viscous fluid.
 Density and composition of mantle vary with depth because heavier materials sink within
Earth.
CRUST
 Lies on top of the mantle.
 2 types oceanic and continental crust.

Oceanic Crust Continental Crust
Dark colored Light Colored
Rock sample: Basalt Rock sample: Granite
Thin layer Coarse-textured
50 km Thick layer
40 – 70 km

EARTH’S SUBSYSTEM
 Planet earth is dynamic each part – land, water, air and life- are interconnected and
continuously interact with one another.

LITHOSPHERE
 Solid section of the Earth
 Includes crust and rigid upper mantle
 Lithosphere is divided into number oh huge plate that move in relation to one another.
 Pangea- continents that are lock up into a huge landmass . That broke gradually and
drifted in their present position.
 Plates drift sideways at the rate of 12cm per year.
  Plate tectonic theory – proposed that the lithosphere is divided into major plates and
smaller plates resting upon a lower soft layer called asthenosphere. The mechanism of
movement is related to the convection current within the mantle.
 Tectonic plate that made up the lithosphere, the rigid outermost part of Earth

Three types of tectonic plate boundaries

 Boundary - Boarder between tectonic plates.
 Each plate moves in different direction.
 3 types. Divergent, convergent and transform
 Volcanoes and earthquakes help define the boundaries between plate.

CONTINENTS OF THE WORLD

 Continents are large, continues, discreate masses of land separated with water.
 Continents are part of the plates. Some continents occur in the middle plate, not on their
boundaries or edges.
ATMOSPHERE
 The early earth atmosphere was very inhospitable.
 There were frequent impacts from meteorites and asteroids as well as frequent volcanic
eruption
 Volcanic eruptions produces water (H2O) and gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2),
carbon monoxide (SO2), nitrogen (N2) ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4) but no
oxygen.
 Earth cooled, water condense to form oceans, carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves into oceans
forming carbonates. And nitrogen (N2) become major components of the atmosphere.
 Radiation from the sun caused H20 to split 2H2O 2H2O + O. Hydrogen escape
into outer space oxygen (O2) accumulated in the atmosphere.
 Cyanobacteria – evolve began carrying out photosynthesis. CO2 + H2O sugar + O2.
the O2 released during photosynthesis and become the main source of oxygen.
 Development, evolution and growth of life increase the quantity of oxygen in the
atmosphere.
Ozone (O3) protected terrestrial life form ultraviolet radiation.
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
TROPOSPHERE
 Lowest layer
 Contains 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere
Most water vapor present
 All weather-associated cloud types are found on this layer.
 Extend from earths surface to average height of 12 km, 9km at poles and 17 km at the
equator.
 Temperature decrease as altitude increases. Less solar radiation as atmosphere become
thinner.
 Temperature stops decreasing at tropopause, found on top of troposphere.

STRATOSPHERE
 Extend from the top troposphere 50km. The temperature increase s as altitude increases
due to presence of ozone (O3)
 Ozone absorbs the UV rays from the sun and release some energy in the stratosphere.
Protects life.
 Where jet planes fly. At stratopause temperature stops increasing, found on top of
stratosphere.
 Lacks weather-producing air turbulence, almost completely free from clouds and other
forms of weather.

MESOSPHERE
 Third layer of the atmosphere.
 Extend from the stratopause at an altitude of 50km to mesopause at around 80km.
 Upper mesosphere is the coldest region in the atmosphere.
 This layer protects the earth from meteoroids
 Meteorites are meteoroids that manage to reach the earth.

THERMOSPHERE
 Second highest layer of Earths atmosphere.
 Extend from mesopause at an altitude of 80km to the thermosphere at around 700km.
 Temperature increases as altitude increases.
 Nitrogen(N2) and oxygen(O2) ultraviolet radiation and turns it into heat.
 Temperature in this layer can rise as high as 1500c
 Ionosphere portion of thermosphere between 80 and 550km above the earth. This layer
consist of highly ionized gas. It is formed when UV rays nock off electrons from N2 and
O2.
EXOSPHERE
 Outermost layer of the earth’s atmosphere.
 Extends at about 700km to about 1000km above sea level.
 Most orbiting satellites as well as low density elements like hydrogen and helium is
found on this layer.

HYDROSPHERE
 In earth’s history as it cooled water vapor condensed to form the early ocean and while
other gases remained gaseous state which make up the early atmosphere.
 Nearly 71% if earths surface is covered with water. Reason it is called blue planet.
  Ocean zones – oceans may be divided into layers, it may be vertical or horizontal.

 Horizontal zones divide the ocean from land to the sea. It consist of costal zone and
pelagic zone.
o Costal zone – region which the sea bottom is exposed during low tide and
covered during high tide.
o Pelagic zone – located seaward of the costal zones low tide mark.
Pelagic zone
 Oceanic zone – lies above the continental shelf.
o Begins from the low tide mark outward from the seashore and extend to a depth
of 200m
 Neritic Zone – extend from the edge of the continental shelf, over the continental shelf,
over the ocean floor.
o Characterized by darkness.

 Vertical zones – divide the ocean base on depth, beginning at sea level to the deepest
point in the ocean. Each zones receives different amount of sunlight.
o Epipelagic zone or sunlight zone(0-200m) zone that gets a lot of sunlight.
Abundance of aquatic plants, common animals found on this zone
o Mesopelagic zone or twilight zone(200-1000) characterized by dim light, limited
amount of sunlight. Some plants, jelly fish, octopus, squid are found on this
region.
o Bathypelagic zone or midnight zone(1000-4000m) no sunlight, animals live
here lacks eye sight. E.g. viper fish, anglerfish, strip eel, and tripod fish
o Abyssopelagic or abyss (4000-6000) describe as deep sea. Animals who live in
this area are invertebrates. E.g. blind shrimp, small squid and hagfish
o Hadalpelagic zone or trenches(6000) deepest part of the ocean. Mostly found in
deep water trenches and canyons. Animals exist like sea cucumbers and tube
worms.
BIOSPHERE
 Contains the entirely of earths living things. “zone of life”
 Biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living things and their
relationship.
 biomes – worlds major communities. Classified base to its predominant vegetation
characterized by adaptation of organisms in particular climate.
four major biomes:
 Aquatic – fresh water(ponds, lakes, rivers, etc.). Marine (Ocean, estuaries, etc.)
 Forest – tropical, temperature, and boreal forest as well as taiga
 Desert – low rain fall (less than 50cm/year). Most deserts have specialized vegetation
and animals to adopt its condition.
 Tundra – the coldest of all biomes.it has low biotic diversity and simple vegetation
structure
FLOW OF MATTER IN THE BIOSPHERE
 Biochemical cycle – movement of substances through biosphere.
The cycle shows the movement of these substance from their nonliving reservoir through
various food chains of the ecosystem.

NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen – the important essential element for all living organisms by the synthesis of Amino
acids, proteins, enzymes, and etc.
Nitrogen Cycle – the circulation/ cyclic movement of nitrogen from the atmosphere(physical or
abiotic component) to soil(Biotic component) and back into the atmosphere.
5 Steps of the Nitrogen Cycle
1. Nitrogen Fixation
2. Nitrogen Assimilation
3. Ammonification
4. Nitrification
5. Denitrification

NITROGEN FIXATION
 the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into Ammonia for living organisms
 This process is carried out by leguminous plants such as ground nut, even some bacteria
can fix atmospheric nitrogen
NITROGEN ASSIMILATION
 the process of absorbing Nitrates and Ammonia into Organic Nitrogen. This organic
Nitrogen is transferred into animal's body when plants are eaten by animals
AMMONIFICATION
 also known as Mineralization
 the process of converting organic nitrogen into Ammonia when animals die
 this process is carried out by some Saprophytes like Fungi and Bacteria
NITRIFICATION
 the process by which ammonia is converted to nitrites (NO2-) and then nitrates (NO3-).
 This process naturally occurs in the environment, where it is carried out by specialized
bacteria. Ammonia.
DENITRIFICATION
 Nitrates converted into molecular nitrogen through Nitric oxide in order to maintain the
equilibrium of nitrogen in the atmosphere
 Bacteria which are involved in denitrification are known as denitrifying bacteria
The importance of the Nitrogen Cycle in human and environment
 Humans
o Because nitrogen is a crucial component for supporting life on Earth It converts
nitrogen into a form that humans can obtain by eating other organisms.
 Environment
o helps the metabolic process of transforming inert nitrogen gas into a form that is
useful to plants. Bacteria involved in the ammonification process aid in the
breakdown of plant and animal materials, indirectly assisting in environmental
cleanup.
Factors that might affect/alter the Nitrogen Cycle
 Rainfall and temperature; and site conditions such as moisture, soil aeration (oxygen
levels), and salt content (electrical conductivity/EC) affect rate of N mineralization from
organic matter decomposition, nitrogen cycling, and nitrogen losses through leaching,
runoff, or denitrification. Human activities like producing nitrogen fertilizers and burning
fossil fuels might also affect the nitrogen cycle.
OXYGEN CYCLE
The oxygen cycle, along with the carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle plays an essential role in the
existence of life on the earth. The oxygen cycle is a biological process that helps in maintaining
the oxygen level by moving through three main spheres of the earth which are:

 Atmosphere
 Lithosphere
 Biosphere
This biogeochemical cycle explains the movement of oxygen gas within the atmosphere, the
ecosystem, the biosphere, and the lithosphere. The oxygen cycle is interconnected with the
carbon cycle.
STAGES OF THE OXYGEN CYCLE
The steps involved in the oxygen cycle are:

Stage-1: All green plants during the process of photosynthesis, release oxygen back into the atmosphere
as a by-product.

Stage-2: All aerobic organisms use free oxygen for respiration.

Stage-3: Animals exhale Carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere which is again used by the plants
during photosynthesis. Now oxygen is balanced within the atmosphere.

THE FOUR MAIN PROCESSES THAT USE ATMOSPHERIC OXYGEN ARE:

Breathing – It is the physical process, through which all living organisms, including plants, animals and
humans inhale oxygen from the outside environment into the cells of an organism and exhale carbon
dioxide back into the atmosphere.

Decomposition: It is one of the natural and most important processes in the oxygen cycle and occurs
when an organism dies. The dead animal or plants decay into the ground, and the organic matter along
with the carbon, oxygen, water and other components are returned into the soil and air. This process is
carried out by the invertebrates, including fungi, bacteria and some insects which are collectively called
as the decomposers. The entire process requires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide.

Combustion: It is also one of the most important processes which occur when any of the organic
materials, including fossil fuels, plastics and wood, are burned in the presence of oxygen and releases
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Rusting: This process also requires oxygen. It is the formation of oxides which is also called oxidation. In
this process, metals like iron or alloy rust when they are exposed to moisture and oxygen for an
extended period of time and new compounds of oxides are formed by the combination of oxygen with
the metal.

PRODUCTION OF OXYGEN
Plants: The leading creators of oxygen are plants by the process of photosynthesis.

Sunlight: Sunlight also produces oxygen. Some oxygen gas is produced when the sunlight reacts with
water vapor in the atmosphere.

IMPORTANCE OF OXYGEN CYCLE

1. Breathing
2. Combustion
3. Supporting aquatic life
4. Decomposition of organic waste.
CARBON CYCLE
CARBON DIOXIDE

 One of the most important chemical elements.

 Carbon compounds make out approximately 18% of all the matter in living things.
 It provides most of the energy used by humans to survive.
 Two main forms of pure natural carbon are the minerals diamond and graphite.
 Carbon is constantly being used and replaced in nature through the carbon cycle.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

 Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is used up by plants along with sunlight for
photosynthesis.
 It is the process which breaks down carbon dioxide into compounds that can be used as
nutrition by the plants. In this process plants release oxygen.

RESPIRATION

 Animals and humans eat the plants thus carbon is transferred from the plants to the
humans and animals.
 Oxygen is inhaled, and then carbon is sent back to the atmosphere. This process is what
we call respiration.

SEDIMENTATION

 Other than respiration, when humans and animals die their remains decay and recompose.
Then carbon is placed to the earth.
EXTRACTION

 When the remains have been around for many years, they become fossil fuels. Which are
the used reservoir of carbon.
COMBUSTION

 Burning of wood, combustion, and etc. are some processes which transfers carbon back
to the atmosphere. It is released in a form of carbon dioxide gas.

EXCHANGE

 Oceans and other large water bodies which have cool water on their surface also absorbs
some carbon from the atmosphere. Ocean exhibits dual behavior. When the surface water
is cooler near the poles, carbon is absorbed into the water. When the surface water is
warm near tropical regions carbon is released into the atmosphere.
From exchange, the plants will again absorb the carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and the
cycle repeats.

WATER CYCLE
 The water cycle shows the continuous movement of water within the Earth and
atmosphere. The cycle involves four major stages, Evaporation, Condensation,
Precipitation, and Collection.
EVAPORATION
 Evaporation occurs when the physical state of water is changed from a liquid state to a
gaseous state.
CONDENSATION
 Condensation is the process by which water vapor changes it's physical state from a
vapor, most commonly, to a liquid.
PRECIPITATION
 Precipitation is the process that occurs when any and all forms of water particles fall from
the atmosphere and reach the ground.
COLLECTION
 Oceans and lakes collects the water that has fallen.
MOVEMENT OF THE ENERGY IN THE BIOSPHERE
 The energy of the sun is the original source of
most of the energy found on earth. We get
solar heat energy from the sun, and sunlight can also be used to produce electricity from
solar (photovoltaic) cells. The sun heats the earth's surface and the Earth heats the air
above it, causing wind.
What is the consideration Of energy transfer?

 Energy cannot be created or destroyed,

but it can be transferred and
transformed. There are a number of different ways
energy can be changed, such as when potential energy becomes kinetic energy or when
one object moves another object.
How does the movement of energy in the biosphere work?

 Through photosynthesis, plants transform inorganic inputs (carbon, water, nitrogen,

phosphorous, etc.) into the myriads of different energy-rich organic materials of which all
organisms consist.

What are the factors that might affect or alter the movement of energy in the biosphere?
The energy can be affected by the Distance between the earth and the Sun, the tilt of the earth,
and the Small factors like humidity, precipitation, temperature, erosion, etc.

Producer:  
the solar energy of the sun enters the earth's biosphere. The autotrophs, the producers (the
plants), can make their own food because of the sun. They use photosynthesis to convert
the solar energy into bonds of various chemical energy. By these it can keep the energy
flow. 

Primary consumer:  
the heterotrophs, consumers, it only rely on other organisms for it's food supply. The
primary consumers, the herbivores which only eats plant consume these plants as food and
the organic products in the plants passed.
Secondary consumer: 
 The chemical energy accumulated in plant products is then converted into kinetic energy.
Degradation of energy will occur through its conversion into heat. When the as the
secondary consumers, the carnivores which only eat meat, consumed the primary
consumers, further degradation occurs.

Tertiary consumers:  
It is the top carnivores, the tertiary consumers consumes the secondary consumers, again
the energy gets degraded. 

Decomposer: 
Plays an important role in ecosystem. By digesting dead matter it put nutrients back into the
soil, making them available to producers.