9.

1 System and Structure of the Earth

Earth system is a system

consisting of four main
components, namely
atmospheric, hydrosphere,
geosphere and biosphere.

1. Atmospheres, hydrosphere, geosphere and biosphere that make up

this earth system are closely related and interact with one another.

Atmosphere
1. Air zone covering the surface of the
earth.
2.Important for all life on earth as it
supplies oxygen which is the basic
necessity of living and carbon dioxide that
is essential for green leaves to do
photosynthesis.
Hydrosphere
1.Water zones that include seas, lakes,
rivers, swamps, undergroundwater and
water vapor in the atmosphere.
2. About 71% of the earth's surface is a
water area and the quantities in
hydrosphera are maintained through
the water cycle.

System of Earth

Geosphere
1.Rock and soil zones on the surface of
the earth.
2.Refers to the solid part of Earth including
volcanoes, rocks, minerals, coal, fossils
and other mineral sources.
Biosphere
1.Living zones consist of living things
such as plants, animals and other
organisms in atmosphere, geosphere
and hydrosphere layers.
2. The interaction between these four spheres creates conditions that
are suitable for humans, animals, plants and other living things to live
on earth.

Atmospheric Stratification

1. The atmosphere consists of several different layers.

2. Each layer of this atmosphere has different air temperature and
pressure and different role.
3. Air pressure decreases by altitude in the atmosphere. The higher
the altitude, the lesser the air and the lower the atmospheric
pressure.

Atmospheric stratification reflects atmospheric division to five

different layers, namely troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.
Exosphere layer (480km up from the surface of
the earth.)
 The outermost and thin air layers,
becoming vacuum at about 700 km from
the earth.
 Contains light gas such as helium and
nitrogen gas.
 Satellites that play an important role in
the field of communication are in this
layer.

The thermosphere layer (80-480 km from the

surface of the earth)
 The temperature at the thermosphere
layer is very high because this layer
receives a lot of ultra-violet (UV)
radiation from the sun that turns into
heat.
 The temperature in this layer increases
according to altitude (height) and can
reach 1650˚C.
 The thermosphere has low air pressure.
 This layer is also known as an
ionosphere layer because this layer has
a charged gas particle. These charged
gas particles are called ions.
 Playing role in communication because
the ions in this layer help reverse radio
waves to the earth.
 Aurora, which is the colourful light strips
that can be seen from the earth at the
North Pole and the South Pole are in
this layer. The Aurora is formed when
the charged particles interact with the
earth's magnets and atmospheric
gases.

The mesosphere layer (50-80 km from the

surface of the earth)
 It is the coolest layer, (about 90˚C) and
the pressure is low.
 The temperature in this layer decreases
with altitude. The higher the altitude, the
lower the temperature.
 Most meteorites are burned and
destroyed here.
 Stratospheric layer (13-50 km from the ground)
 It is a non-cloudy, more stable and
suitable layer for airplane travel.
 This layer is important because it
contains an ozone layer that works to
absorb most of the life-threatening UV
radiation.
 The temperature and air pressure of this
layer increases by altitude.
 The higher the altitude, the lower the
temperature. It can reach 0˚C at 50 km.

Tropospheric layer (0-13 km from the surface

of the earth)
 The nearest layer to the surface of the
Earth.
 Unstable; Wind changes, rain, humidity,
clouds, snow and temperatures occur
here.
 The temperature and pressure in this
layer decreases with altitude.
 The troposphere is heated by heat
released from the surface of the earth.
Therefore, the temperature decreases
when this layer goes further from the
surface of the earth.

Ozone layer depletion

 Thin ozone depletion occurs due to increased chlorofluorocarbon

(CFC) levels in the atmosphere resulting in ozone layer holes exist
in Antarctic and
Arctic regions.
 Excessive UV
radiation emission
to the ground can
cause skin cancer,
eye cataract, and
human body
immunity.
 Thinning of ozone
layer can also
reduce the rate of plant photosynthesis and cause global warming.
Stratification in the Ocean

1. Scientist who has classified the oceans to the three major zones
based on the amount of light that can penetrate the seawater.
2. This ocean zone extends from a surface zone that can penetrate
the light to a very dark zone where no light can pass through it.
3. Distribution of living species in zones with different depths is also
different.

Sun Surface zone (0-200 km above sea level)

- Sun-penetrated zone of sunlight.
- Photosynthesis can happen here. Hence,
about 90% of the species living in the sea
are scattered in this zone.
Surface zone Midnight zone (200-1500 m above sea
level)
- This zone has little or no light. So, the
plants are hard to live here.
Midnight zone - Bigger and adaptable ocean animals to
live in less light like giant octopus can live
here.
- Most life in this zone is black or red due to
lack of light.
Dark zone Dark zone (1500 m above sea level)
- The zone is very dark and no light can
penetrate it. Thus, the temperature of this
zone is very low.
- Most animals living in this zone have
bodies that shine or glow in the dark. For
example, angler’s fish can generate light to
aid their movement.

Water distribution on Earth

1. Nearly 97% of the earth's water is saltwater from the oceans. The
remainder exists as fresh and scattered in water as follows:-
(a) As underground water.
(b)As surface water on lakes, rivers and marshes.
(c) As a glacier and ice coverage in the poles.
(d)A small amount is stored in the soil, in the clouds in the
atmosphere and in the body of the organism.
 2. The amount of water contained in the earth, on the surface of the
earth and in the atmosphere is always fixed and cycle through
continuous water cycle.

Earth Layer

1. The Earth consists of three main layers, namely crust, coat and
core.
Crust
Coat
Outer Core
Inner Core
 Crust
- The hardest layers of
the earth.
- It is the upper part of the
lithosphere that is divided
into two layers.
-The top layer is a
continent consisting of
granite while underneath
is a hard rock layer
known as basalt.
-Most of the crust is made
of igneous rock.
Coat
-The second layer after
the crust.
- 70% of the volume of
the earth consists of a
coat.
-The mantle portion under
the lithosphere consists of
partially melted rock
because of its high
temperature, i.e. 1400˚C.
This layer is known as
asthenosphere.
-Mantel is unstable due to
convection currents
converging that cause the
movement in the Earth.
Core
- Consists of two layers,
an external core of liquid
and inner core that is
believed to be solid.
- The inner core is denser
and warmer than the
outer core.
- The core of the earth is
twice as solid as the coat
because it has metallic
material compared to a
stone coat.

2. Each of these layers can be distinguished in terms of their

composition and physical properties.

Thickness Temperature Density

Layer Composition
(km) (˚C) (g/cm3)
Granite: silica and
Earth aluminium
3-60 < 800 2.7-3.0
crust Basalt: silica,
magnesium and iron
Silicon and sulphur
Coat 10-2900 800-1600 3.5-5.5
dioxide (liquid)
Outer Rich with nickel and iron
2000 3000 10
core (liquid)
Inner Rich with nickel and iron
1370 5000 13.6
core (solid)

Earth is the Only Home for All Life

1. Earth is the only home to live in the solar system because the
earth's physical environment is suitable for life.
2. Earth is the third planet from the sun and the distance between the
sun and the earth makes the earth's temperature not too hot or too
cold. It provides the suitable conditions for life.
3. The existence of freshwater and oxygen in the earth also enables
the living being to obtain basic necessities for survival on earth.
4. Therefore, we must manage the environment well so that the
earth's physical physics fit for floating life is maintained.
9.2 Earth Material

1. Rock is a solid formed when two or more minerals combine

chemically.
2. The quantity of minerals found in the rocks varies as each is
through different formation processes.

Type of rock Characteristic

Igneous - Each time magma erupts to the surface
of the Earth, the process of cooling and
solidifying the magma will occur and form
an igneous rock.
- Igneous rock is crystal shaped, very hard
and shiny.
- The igneous rock formed by cooling the
magma slowly, producing large and rough
crystals such as granite, gabbro and
diorite. The igneous rock formed by the
quick cooling of the magma will formed
smooth crystals such as basalt, obsidian
and pumice.
Sedimentary -When rocks are weathered and eroded,
rocks will decompose into tiny debris
known as sediments.
-The fragments of rock, sand, silt, mud or
shellfish are layered, usually at the bottom
of the ocean or lake. These layers will
undergo compaction and cementing
processes, which then form sedimentary
rocks.
- Sedimentary rocks are also formed from
materials streamed by flowing water, ice
and wind such as mud, sand, gravel,
waste and dead animals, which are known
as fossils.
Metamorphic - Metamorphic rocks exist from igneous
rocks and sedimentary rocks.
-When igneous rocks or sedimentary rocks
are exposed to high pressure and
temperature in the crust, the physical
properties and chemical composition of
these rocks will change and form new
rocks named metamorphic rocks.
-Metamorphic rocks are harder and more
stable than igneous or sedimentary rocks.
For example, quartzite, marble, gneiss and
new serpentine.
Rock

Formation Process
1. Based on its formation process,
rocks can be classified into igneous
rocks, sedimentary rocks and
metamorphic rocks.
2. Magma is a liquid rock in the coat
layer that is formed due to heat
absorption from a high temperature
coat.

Sandstone
Classical sedimentary Shawl
rocks Conglomerate stone
Sedimentary rock Breccia
Chemical sediment rock Salt stone
Gypsum
Organic sedimentary rocks Limestone
Charcoal
9.3 The Main Process of Earth

1. Earth's geological processes cause the formation and changes of

the crust's surface.
2. Geomorphology is a study and knowledge of terrestrial forms on
land, ocean and earth layers.
3. There are two types of earth geological processes, namely
exogenous processes and endogenous processes.

Exogenous Process

1. Exogenous processes are

geological processes that
occur on the surface of the
earth.
2. The exogenous process is
driven by exogenous energy
derived from the surface of
the earth or outer surface of
the earth (atmospheric).
3. Exogenous energy comes from outer surface of the earth such as:
(a) The gravitational force of the moon, which causes waves and
tide in the ocean and receding phenomena that, can erode the
beaches and high cliffs by the shore.
(b) The meteoroid detonation on the surface of the earth that
changes the ground appearance.
(c) Sunlight rays cause water, ice and air movement. Air movement
produces winds, which are an important agent of exogenous
processes such as erosion and weathering.

4. Examples of exogenous processes are erosion, weathering, mass

depreciation and land degradation as well as transport and
settlement.

5. Erosion
(a) Erosion is the loss of surface of the earth due to acts of erosion
agents such as water, waves and wind.
 (b) Erosion is a geomorphological
process that changes the physical
properties of rocks but does not
alter the their chemical and
biological properties.
(c) Erosion can also occur as a result
of human activity, the roots of
plants that grow on the rocks as
well as the activities of animals that
dig up the land such as worms,
mice and soil squirrels.

6. Weathering
(a) Weathering is the process of breaking and decomposing rocks
on the surface of the earth when exposed to physical, chemical
and biological processes such as temperature, rain water, frost
and microorganisms.
(b) The weathering process is divided into tree, i.e.:
(i) Physical weathering is a rock-breaking process
physically without involving
changes in the chemical
content of rocks.
(ii) Chemical weathering is a
process of decomposition
of rocks that alter rock
chemical content due to
elements of the
atmosphere such as rain,
oxygen and carbon dioxide.
(iii) Biological weathering is a process of breaking and
decomposing rocks caused by organisms such as
animals, plants and microorganisms.
(c) The result of weathering process is the shape of the earth as
limestone caves, stalactites and stalagmites.
7. Mass decrement and land degradation

(a) Mass decrement and land degradation is

the process of earth moving material down
the slope by gravitational force.
(b) Erosion and weathering agents resulting in
elevated altitude of elevated areas break
down Earth’s soil from highland areas.
(c) Topographical and slope geological factors affect the mass
decrement rate.
(d) Water acts as a lubricant that helps lowering, drop or depreciate
the mass (rocks and soils) down the slopes. Landslides and
mass depreciation are more frequent in the sloppy area during
heavy rains.
(e) Mass depreciation is an example of movement of soil and rocks
down the slope to the hill foot and the soil erosion phenomena.

8. Transport and settlement

(a) Transport is the transfer of material that has been deteriorated

or eroded elsewhere by agents such as wind, water, waves and
glaciers.
(b) The settling is the hoarding and deposition of corrosive
substances to form the sediment when the velocity of the agent
slows down.
(c) Transport agents and settlements are identical agents of
corrosion, weathering and depletion processes but the power
and rate of settlement agent action are slow and weak.

Limestone cave A wave that erodes rocks

Weathering Erosion
 Land erosion Downstream deposition
Mass decrement and land
degradation Transport and settlement

Endogenous process

1. Endogenous processes are geological processes that occur under

the surface of the earth due to endogenic energy, which are from
within the crust.
2. There are three endogenous processes:
(a) Magma activity
(b)Mantle convection
(c) The movement of
tectonic plates or
pieces of earth crust
3. The endogenous process
affects the appearance of
the terrestrial parts of the
earth and the ocean floor.
4. Endogenous processes
cause phenomena like
earthquakes, continental
formation, ocean trench and mountain slopes, volcanic activity,
rock metamorphism and crust movement.

5. Magma activity
(a) The magma activity causes a volcanic eruption.
(b) Volcanic eruptions are phenomena where heated
magma from the core of the earth breaks out to
the surface of the earth. The hot magma flows out
is known as lava.
 (c) Lava hardens and produces intrusive rocks or plutonic rocks.
(d) Although the phenomena of volcanic eruptions do not directly
affect the appearance of topographic on earth, but the formation
of volcanic rocks on the surface of the crust produce the site or
surface of an exogenous process that changes the shape of the
earth such as weathering, erosion and mass decrement.

6. Mantle convection
(a) Mantle convection is formed as a result of heat in the core part
of the earth over the rocks in the coat.
(b) The warmer magma is less dense and moves upwards and is
replaced by a cooler and heavier magma that moves
downwards.
(c) Warmer magma moves up and colder magma down repeatedly
forming a convective current.

7. Movement of tectonic plates.

(a) The tectonic plate theory states that the crust layer is built from
the crust called the plate.
(b) The crust plates are hard and brittle rocks that float over the
magma flowing in the mantle.
Therefore, the plate moves as if it
were a layer of oil on the water.
Observation from the data showed
that the energy of the convective
currents caused the movement of
the earth plate from the rate of 3
cm per year.
(c) Movement of crust plates involves plate collision and separation
of plates. Both processes produce different terrain and
continental drift.
Magma activity Mantle convection Tectonic plate movement

9.4 Geo-hazard phenomena

Geo-hazard

1. Geo-hazard is a natural disaster caused by endogenous

processes.
2. Examples of geo-hazard include earthquakes, volcanism,
landslides, tsunamis, floodplain, quicksand, global warming and
greenhouse gases and acid rain.

Volcanism
1. Generally, volcanism is the eruption of magma onto the surface of the
Earth.
2. Volcanoes are defined as a pathway or the
vents where magma and soluble solids in the
magma are ejected.
3. Magma or molten rocks under the crust is
under very great pressure.
4. Magma that is lighter and less dense moving
upwards. When the magma rises, the gas
stacks begin to form from dissolved gases in
the magma.
5. These gas bubbles are high pressure. This pressure causes the
magma to break out to the surface of the earth. This volcanic eruption
is called volcanism.
6. Volcanism liberates lava, ash, carbon dioxide gas, sulphur dioxide,
carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen dioxide.
Earthquakes

1. The earthquake is the shaking of the surface ground on the earth

originated from rock vibration within the crust. It is caused by
sudden release of energy from the earth's crust or earthquake
waves which moving in layers of the earth's crust.
2. Sudden energy release occurs when the tectonic plates are
switched and collided at the tectonic plates of the earth and the
fault lines.
3. The world's tectonic plate meeting area is located within the edge
of the Pacific Ocean or pacific fire circle where 80% of
earthquakes occur here.

1. Converge two moving 2. The pressure 3. The energy

tectonic plates. and tension on becomes very
the colliding and large and
disputing brutality overcomes the
produces energy. elasticity of the
rocks.
6.Seismic waves of the 5. The release of 4. Energy
earthquake move and energy produces discharge causes
spread to various waves from the breakdown and
directions creating a crust epicentre. rock movement.
of earth's crust
(earthquake phenomenon)

4. Impact of the
earthquake
(a) Strong earthquake
eruption caused
tsunami and land
collapse.
(b) This results in the
destruction of many
properties, roads,
railways and airports.
(c) The collapse of buildings and landslides due to earthquake
caused many humans and animals to lose their lives.
Tsunami
1. The word 'tsunami' comes from Japanese means 'big waves in the
harbour' where 'tsu' means port and ‘nami’ means wave.
2. The tsunami is known as the seismic wave of the sea, which is a
series of waves in the body of water caused by the transfer of a
large body of water.
3. These waves or tsunami are due to events such as:
(a) The movement of plates and clash of oceanic crust plates.
(b)The occurrence of an earthquake under the sea.
(c) A volcanic eruption
under the sea.
(d)Landslides occurring in
the sea.
4. Impact of tsunami:
(a) Destruction of
surrounding
(b)Lost of life of human and
animal.
(c) Destruction of
infrastructure.
Landslide

1. The occurrence of landslides is a mass reduction process caused

by soil mass instability.
2. Movement of underground or downstream rocks by gravity is due
to the fact that underground mass stabilisation and rocks cause to
move to undergo restructuring to become more stable.
3. The process of landslides
involves movements including
ground slides, soil movements,
landslides and rocks, free flow or
mud and water slippage.
4. Landslides can be caused by
natural factors such as
earthquake shaking, volcanic
eruptions and underground water
flows or human activity factors
such as steep slope, slope modification, mining and quarrying.
 The cause of Nature factor - Earthquake
the landslides (natural) - Volcanic eruptions
- Underground water flow
- Erosion and weathering of cliffs
and slopes by erosion agents
- Extremely heavy rain and
floods
Human - Stripping hill
activity factor - Mining and quarrying
- Developmental activity
- Drain modification
- Slope modification
- Deforestation

Global Warming and Greenhouse Effect

1. Global warming is a global temperature increase caused by

greenhouse gases.
2. The effect of greenhouse is the phenomena of heat energy from
the sun are traps at the atmospheric layers of the earth by
greenhouse gases.
3. Greenhouse gases absorb and trap some infrared radiation from
sunlight and retransmit this radiation to the surface of the earth.
 4. Green house gases include carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogen
oxides. Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas. The increase
in greenhouse gases resulting in an increase in the average
temperature of the earth's surface.
5. Impact of global warming
(a) Causes ice and glaciation in the arctic, Greenland and Antarctic
areas. This in turn led to the rise of the sea level.
(b)The oceans become hotter causing the plankton to collapse and
the chains are affected.
(c) The earth's weather changes. The occurrence of floods and
droughts is more common.

Acid rain

1. Acid rain is formed when acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide gas
and nitrogen oxides dissolve in water vapour in the atmosphere
before going down to earth.
2. Acid rain is formed in the form of nitric acid and sulphuric acid.
Nitrogen oxide + Water vapour  nitric acid
Sulphur dioxide + water vapour  sulphuric acid

3. Factors that cause acid rain:

(a) Fossil fuel combustion, factories and motor vehicles release
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide gas into the air.
(b) Smelting process of tin that release sulphur dioxide.
(c) Combustion of non-biodegradable materials such as plastics
releases sulphur dioxide.
(d) Acid rain also occurs naturally through a volcanic explosion that
releases sulphur dioxide gas, nitrogen dioxide and carbon
monoxides.
 4. Effect of acid rain:
(a) Fertility of soil and plant decreases.
(b)Ruin structures of buildings.
(c) May cause skin cancer,
damage to human body
tissues if consume water from
acid rain polluted rivers, lakes
and dams.
(d)Causes forest destruction.
(e) Cause the acid content in the
soil high and the soil
becomes infertile. This affects
agricultural products.
(f) Destroying the functions of
leaves and leaves so they
cannot carry out photosynthesis. The tree will wilt and die.
(g)Aquatic ecosystems are also disturbed. Aquatic plants and
plankton are destroyed due to the decrease in pH of the lake,
river and sea.
Sinkhole

1. The sinkhole is a cavity in the

ground caused by land surface
collapse.
2. Incident of sinkhole occurrence is
associated with the type of rock and
soil and underground water
drainage.
3. Sinkholes are formed due to the
dissolving rocks when there is water-soluble rock such as salt or
gypsum or sedimentary rocks containing carbonates such as
limestone and dolomite.

Quicksand and land jerk

1. Quicksand occurs when water drains the area where the sand
particles arrangement is loose so the sand moves.
 2. When the water is caught in the sand group, it forms a liquid sand
that is no longer able to cope with the weight and will suck in the
fallen object.
3. Quicksand usually occurs in relatively weak areas such as springs,
along riverbanks, lakes, swamps or coastal areas.

The Technology Used to Facilitate the Earth

1. Seismograph

(a) The seismograph is an instrument for recording the seismic

wave amplitude at the specified point above the surface of the
earth.
(b) The seismograph measures the magnitude of the earthquake
using a graphical presentation called a seismogram.

(c) This tool is used to know the tremendous force and predict the
epicentre earthquake.

2. Shake absorption

(a) The vibration absorption is mounted on highrise buildings and

bridges to absorb the tremors caused by the earthquake.
(b) The absorption of this vibration reduces the risk of collapsing
and destroyed buildings during the earthquake.
3. Tsunameter and tsunami buoy

(a) Both of these tools are used

to confirm the presence of
tsunami waves resulting from
earthquakes.
(b) Tsunameter measures the
change in water height by
measuring changes in water
pressure. Information
recorded by the tsunami is
transmitted to tsunami buoy.
(c) The tsunami buoy sends
information record to the
tsunami alert centre via
satellite.
(d) With this technology, sea level changes can be traced and this
enhances the initial detection capability of the tsunami before it
lands inland.
9.5 Age of Earth
Geological Time Scale

1. The geological timeline is the preparation of geological events in

chronological order. It is used by geologists, fossil researchers
(palaeontologists) and earth scientists to describe the duration and
the relationship between events occurring throughout the history of
the earth.
2. The geological time scale used now is in the 18th century and
continues to improve, the geological time scale is considered as a
real geological time estimate made based on carbon dating using
the oldest radiometric techniques and age of fossils found in the
rock layers.
3. The geological time scale is divided into four seasons, namely
cenozoic, mesozoic, paleozoic and precambrian.
Era Duration / period Main event

Cenozoic Quaternary (1.8 jtl) Human evolution

(nowadays) Tertier (65 jtl) Diversity of various mammals.
Cretaceous (150 jtl) - extinction of dinosaur
- The first appearance of flowering
plants
Mesozoic
Jurassic (200 jtl) - The first appearance of the bird
(middle age)
- Diversity of various types of dinasours
Triassic (250 jtl) - The first appearance of mammals
- The first appearance of dinosaur
Permian (300 jtl) -Extinction of various types of reptiles.
-Diversity of various reptiles
Carboniferous (350 - The first appearance of reptilian
jtl)
Devonian (400 jtl) - The appearance of amphibians and
insects
Paleozoic
Silur (450 jtl) -The appearance of vascular plants
(ancient time)
Silurian (450 jtl) (mainland)
Ordovician (500 jtl) - The diversity of various metazoan
animals
Cambrian (550 jtl) - The first appearance of the fish
- The first appearance of the chordate
(chordate)
- The first occurrence of the shelling
organism
Precambrian (4500jtl)
- First appearance of molluscs
- The first appearance of animal trail
Determination of Age of Earth

1. The exact age of the earth is not known to humans accurately

except by God who created this universe. Humans simply conduct
studies to estimate the most probable time of the formation of the
earth.
2. Through the study and research of modern science scientists from
the late 18th century, the universe was formed about 13.7 billion
years ago from a Great Explosion.
3. According to geological scientists and scientists using the actual
age approach of rocks using radiometric dating techniques, the
age of the earth is about 4.6 billion, i.e. younger than the age of
the universe.
4. The approach to earth age determination consists of two ways.
(a) Relative life expectancy
(I) This approach is a dating method for estimating the age of
rocks and fossils found through comparison method. For
example, the branding of which layers were first formed
and the layers formed later.
(II) This method is less important because it does not indicate
the age of the rock in the unit of time.

(b) The actual age approach

(I) This approach uses a radiometric dating method.
(II) The radiometric dating method uses the decaying
properties of radioactive elements in the rock to determine
their age.
(III) The radioactive elements can be found in rock elements.
(IV) The type of radioactive decay most commonly used by
geologists is carbon-14 radioactive decay to nitrogen-14.
(V) By comparing the amount of carbon-14 content with the
amount of nitrogen-14 left in any fossil, age of fossil can
be calculated.
Fossil

1. Fossil is a residual or trail of

organisms whether plants or
animals that lived in the past
were naturally preserved in the
rocks.
2. Fossils are found in the form of
skeleton or animal bones,
shells, leaves and woody parts
that have been preserved or simply the effects of footprints or
animal trails.
3. Most fossils are found embedded in sedimentary rocks such as
limestone, sandstone and rocks.
4. Fossils are found when natural weathering and human exploration
activities reveal fossilized rocks.
5. The process of fossil formation takes up to millions of years.
6. The importance of fossils to science.
(a) Fossil record describes the diversity of past biodiversity;
including all existing animals, plants and microorganisms.
(b) The fossil record becomes a
guide to the life history of the
earth.
(c) Fossil records provide information
on extinct species from the face
of the earth.
(d) Through carbon dating of fossils,
the age of area or historical
remains may be determined.

9.6 Earth Resources and Applied Geology

Surface Water

1. Surface water is water flowing over the ground to groves, rivers,

lakes, ponds and seas.
2. Surface water flows from highland to low ground and eventually
into the sea due to gravitational attraction.
3. Surface water risk is as follows.
 (a) Surface water surplus
causes flash floods and floodwaters,
lakes and seas. The occurrence of
floods and overflows of water can be
harmful to life and cause destruction of
property such as buildings, roads,
furniture and vehicles.
(b) Surface water shortages
cause drought that can be harmful to
the environment and the environment.

Underground water

1. Underground water is the water that permeates into the earth

below the ground.
2. Underground water flows through soil pores and soil fractures from
highland areas to low areas due to gravity.
3. Underground water risk is as follows:
(a) Extraction of underground water lowers the underground water
level, which may cause a burrowing in the ground.
(b) Toxic substances that permeate into the soil and pollute
underground water cause underground water pollution. The
salty seawater can also pollute the groundwater resources and
subsequently produce saline underground water.
Aquifer

1. Aquifer is a rock formation or site that can hold underground water.

2. The aquifer is divided into two types, namely:
(a) Confined aquifer can only store underground water but does not
allow the underground water to flow.
(b) Unconfined aquifers act as channels for groundwater flow in the
soil to the river as the base stream or the source.
3. Aquifer risk is as follows:
(a) Extraction of water from aquifers may cause infiltration holes
and soils.
(b) Freshwater aquifers near the sea are at risk of being
contaminated by the seepage of the sea into the aquifer and
subsequently turn into salt water.

Economic minerals
1. Mineral is an element or solid compound that naturally exists on
earth.
2. Economic mineral are
categorized into three groups,
namely:
(a) Metallic minerals such as
gold, copper, iron, tin,
aluminium, lead and
uranium.
(b) Non-metallic minerals such
as coal and petroleum.
(c) Noble earth minerals such
as scandium, atrium,
yttrium, lantunam and neodymium.

Coal Iron Gold

Neodymiu
m
 3. Economic minerals have a high value in the manufacturing and
economy industries as shown in the table below.

Mineral Uses

Aluminium Manufacture of aircraft and cars, bottling and canning.

Lead Batteries, television tubes.
Sulphur Preparation of fertilizers, acid production.
Silicon Semiconductors in computer and electronic devices.
Neodymium Powerful magnets in loudspeakers, computer hard drives.
Praseodymium Airplane engine, protector of glassmaker.

Petroleum and coal

1. Petroleum and coal are non-metallic minerals that are widely used
as fuel.
2. Petroleum and coal are fossil fuels as both are derived from
fossils.
3. Petroleum is formed from the remnants of marine organisms that
are immersed in the bottom of the ocean millions of years ago.
4. Coal is formed from plants in the swampy areas that were
inhabited millions of years ago.
5. The diagram below shows the formation of petroleum and coal.
Hydrothermal Process

1. Hydrothermal comes from a combination of two 'hydro' instructions

which means water and 'thermal' which means heat.
2. Hydrothermal involves the determination of rocks, minerals and hot
water from heat effects released by magma that cools down to
water.

Prospect of Hydrothermal Economy

1. The economic prospects of hydrothermal include:

(a) Production of rocks and minerals
I. Granite rocks formed by underground hydrants contain
useful minerals such as uranium and copper.
II. The sedimentary rocks formed by hydrothermal in the
ocean contain mineral layers like lead, zinc, copper, gold,
silver and tungsten.

(b) Production of geothermal energy and electricity

I. When groundwater or seawater is heated by a heated
magma, steam at high pressure will be generated and
released from the surface of the earth through hot springs.
II. The released steam has many hydrothermal powers.
However, hydrothermal energy derived from thermal
energy in the earth known as geothermal energy.
III. Now, there is an electric power station that uses
geothermal energy to generate electricity.
The Negative Effects of Human Activity

1. Managing human resources by land should be carefully and

cautiously that the resources are not exploited to harm the
environment on earth.
2. The unplanned human resource exploitation of the earth will give
bad effect to earth and all living things on earth.
3. The table below shows the unplanned human activities and their
impact on the earth.
Human activities are not well planned The effect
- Plantation - Flash flood
- Deforestation - Soil erosion
- Industrial purposes - Extinction of plant and animal
- Open burning - Water, air, thermal and sound
pollution
- Global warming