ATMOSPHERE

&
ITS
TRACE
ELEMENTS
 CONTENTS

1. Layers of Atmosphere

1.1.Structure of Atmosphere

1.1.1. Principal Layers

1.1.1.1.Exosphere

1.1.1.2.Thermosphere

• Ionosphere(region & sun’s effect)

1.1.1.3.Stratosphere

1.1.1.4.Troposphere

1.1.2. Other Layers

1.2.Physical ProperFes

1.2.1. Pressure and Thickness

1.2.2. Density and mass

1.3.Atmospheric Temperature in relaFon to AlFtude

2. Atmospheric ComposiFon

2.1.Constant gases

2.2.Variable gases

2.2.1. Carbon Dioxide

2.2.2. Methane

2.2.3. Water vapor

2.2.4. Nitrogen oxides

2.2.5. Ozone
 2.2.5.1.Tropospheric ozone

• FormaFon

• Effects

• ReducFon & Controlling

2.2.5.2.Stratospheric Ozone

• Source

• DistribuFon

• Ozone DepleFon

• Consequences of Ozone DepleFon

• Controlling Ozone DepleFon

2.3 Conclusion

CHAPTER 1
LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere of Earth is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth that is retained by
Earth's gravity. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiaFon,
warming the surface through heat retenFon (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature
extremes between day and night.
The common name given to the atmospheric gases used in breathing and photosynthesis is air.
While air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, air suitable for the survival
of terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals currently is only known to be found in
Earth's troposphere and arFficial atmospheres.
The atmosphere has a mass of about 5×1018 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km
(6.8 mi; 36,000 _) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with
increasing alFtude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The
Kármán line, at 100 km (62 mi), or 1.57% of the Earth's radius, is o_en used as the border
between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noFceable
during atmospheric reentry of spacecra_ at an alFtude of around 120 km (75 mi). Several layers
can be disFnguished in the atmosphere, based on characterisFcs such as temperature and
composiFon.
The study of Earth's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science or aerology.

1.1 STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE

1.1.1 PRINCIPAL LAYERS
In general, air pressure and density decrease with alFtude in the atmosphere. However,
temperature has a more complicated profile with alFtude, and may remain relaFvely
constant or even increase with alFtude in some regions. Because the general pafern of
the temperature/alFtude profile is constant, the temperature behavior provides a useful
metric to disFnguish between atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth's atmosphere can be
divided (called atmospheric straFficaFon) into five main layers. From highest to lowest,
these layers are:
1.1.1.1 Exosphere

This is the outermost layer of the atmosphere. It extends from the top of the
thermosphere to 6,200 miles (10,000 km) above the earth. It is mainly composed
of hydrogen, helium and some heavier molecules such as nitrogen, oxygen and
carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. In this layer, atoms and molecules escape
 into space and satellites orbit the earth. The atoms and molecules are so far
apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one
another, so the atmosphere no longer behaves like a gas. At the bofom of the
exosphere is the thermo pause located around 375 miles (600 km) above the
earth.

1.1.1.2 Thermosphere

Between about 53 miles (85 km) and 375 miles (600 km) lies the thermosphere.
This layer is known as the upper atmosphere. The InternaFonal Space
StaFon orbits are in this layer, between 320 and 380 km (200 and 240 mi). While
sFll extremely thin, the gases of the thermosphere become increasingly denser
as one descends toward the earth. As such, incoming high energy ultraviolet and
x-ray radiaFon from the sun begins to be absorbed by the molecules in this layer
and causes a large temperature increase. Because of this absorpFon, the
temperature increases with height. From as low as -184°F (-120°C) at the bofom
of this layer, temperatures can reach as high as 3,600°F (2,000°C) near the top.
However, despite the high temperature, this layer of the atmosphere would sFll
feel very cold to our skin due to the very thin atmosphere. The high temperature
indicates the amount of the energy absorbed by the molecules but with so few in
this layer, the total number of molecules is not enough to heat our skin.

The Ionosphere
Ionosphere is an extension of the thermosphere. So technically, the
ionosphere is not another atmospheric layer. The ionosphere represents
less than 0.1% of the total mass of the Earth's atmosphere. Even though it
is such a small part, it is extremely important!
The upper atmosphere is ionized by solar radiaFon. That means the Sun's
energy is so strong at this level, that it breaks apart molecules. So there
ends up being electrons floaFng around and molecules which have lost or
gained electrons.
Different regions of the ionosphere make long distance radio
communicaFon possible by reflecFng the radio waves back to Earth. It is
also home to auroras.

• Regions of the Ionosphere

The ionosphere is broken down into the D, E and F regions. The
breakdown is based on what wavelength of solar radiaFon is absorbed in
that region most frequently.
The D region is the lowest in alFtude, though it absorbs the most
energeFc radiaFon, hard x-rays. The D region doesn't have a definite
starFng and stopping point, but includes the ionizaFon that occurs below
about 90km.
The E region peaks at about 105km. It absorbs so_ x-rays.
The F region starts around 105km and has a maximum around 600km. It
is the highest of all of the regions. Extreme ultra-violet radiaFon (EUV) is
absorbed there.

• The Sun's Effect on the Ionosphere

Invisible layers of ions and electrons are found in the Earth's atmosphere.
We call this region of atmosphere the ionosphere. The main source of
these layers is the Sun's ultraviolet light which ionizes atoms and
molecules in the Earth's upper atmosphere. During this process, electrons
are knocked free from molecules or parFcles in the atmosphere.
 Flares and other big events on the Sun produce increased ultraviolet, x-
ray and gamma-ray photons that arrive at the Earth just 8 minutes later
(other parFcles from the Sun may arrive days later) and dramaFcally
increase the ionizaFon that happens in the atmosphere. So, the more
acFve the Sun, the thicker the ionosphere.

This image shows how different types of solar

radiation (x-rays to infrared radiation) penetrate into the Earth's atmosphere. It is this solar radiation that
ionizes the upper atmosphere, creating the ionosphere.

1.1.1.3 Mesosphere

This layer extends from around 31 miles (50 km) above the Earth's surface to 53
miles (85 km). The gases, including the oxygen molecules, conFnue to become
denser as one descends. As such, temperatures increase as one descends rising
to about 5°F (-15°C) near the bofom of this layer. The gases in the mesosphere
are now thick enough to slow down meteors hurtling into the atmosphere,
where they burn up, leaving fiery trails in the night sky. Both the stratosphere
 (next layer down) and the mesosphere are considered the middle atmosphere.
The transiFon boundary which separates the mesosphere from the stratosphere
is called the strato pause.

1.1.1.4 Stratosphere

The Stratosphere extends around 31 miles (50 km) down to anywhere from 4 to
12 miles (6 to 20 km) above the Earth's surface. This layer holds 19 percent of the
atmosphere's gases but very lifle water vapor.

In this region the temperature increases with height. Heat is produced in the
process of the formaFon of Ozone and this heat is responsible for temperature
increases from an average -60°F (-51°C) at tropopause to a maximum of about
5°F (-15°C) at the top of the stratosphere.

This increase in temperature with height means warmer air is located above
cooler air. This prevents "convecFon" as there is no upward verFcal movement of
the gases. As such the locaFon of the bofom of this layer is readily seen by the
'anvil-shaped' tops of cumulonimbus clouds.

1.1.1.5 Troposphere

Known as the lower atmosphere almost all weather occurs in this region. The
troposphere begins at the Earth's surface and extends from 4 to 12 miles (6 to 20
km) high.

The height of the troposphere varies from the equator to the poles. At the equator
it is around 11-12 miles (18-20 km) high, at 50°N and 50°S, 5½ miles and at the
poles just under four miles high. As the density of the gases in this layer decrease
with height, the air becomes thinner. Therefore, the temperature in the troposphere
also decreases with height in response. As one climbs higher, the temperature
drops from an average around 62°F (17°C) to -60°F (-51°C) at the tropopause.

1.1.2 Other layers

Within the five principal layers which are largely determined by temperature, several
secondary layers may be disFnguished by other properFes:
• The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. In this
layer ozone concentraFons are about 2 to 8 parts per million, which is much
 higher than in the lower atmosphere but sFll very small compared to the main
components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower porFon of the
stratosphere from about 15–35 km.

• The homosphere and heterosphere are defined by whether the atmospheric

gases are well mixed. The surfaced-based homosphere includes the troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere, and the lowest part of the thermosphere, where the
chemical composiFon of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight
because the gases are mixed by turbulence. Above this alFtude lies the
heterosphere which includes the exosphere and most of the themosphere. Here
the chemical composiFon varies with alFtude. This is because the distance that
parFcles can move without colliding with one another is large compared with the
size of moFons that cause mixing. This allows the gases to straFfy by molecular
weight, with the heavier ones such as oxygen and nitrogen present only near the
bofom of the heterosphere.

• The planetary boundary layer is the part of the troposphere that is closest to
Earth's surface and is directly affected by it, mainly through turbulent diffusion.
During the day the planetary boundary layer usually is well-mixed, whereas at
night it becomes stably straFfied with weak or intermifent mixing.

1.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1.2.1 Pressure and thickness

The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 standard
atmosphere (atm). Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air
above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air
pressure varies with locaFon and weather. If the atmosphere had a
uniform density, it would terminate abruptly at an alFtude of 8.50 km.
In summary, the mass of Earth's atmosphere is distributed approximately as
follows:
• 50% is below 5.6 km (18,000 _).
• 90% is below 16 km (52,000 _).
• 99.99997% is below 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 _), the Kármán line. By
internaFonal convenFon, this marks the beginning of space where human
travelers are considered astronauts.
1.2.2 Density and Mass
 The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m3 (1.2 g/L). Density is not
measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure
and humidity using the equaFon of state for air. Atmospheric density decreases
as the alFtude increases. The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5
quadrillion (5×1015) tones or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the
American NaFonal Center for Atmospheric Research, "The total mean mass of
the atmosphere is 5.1480×1018 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2
or 1.5×1015 kg depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are
used. The mean mass of water vapor is esFmated as 1.27×1016 kg and the dry air
mass as 5.1352 ±0.0003×1018 kg.

1.3 ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE IN RELATION TO ALTITUDE

Measurements have shown that the relaFonship between temperature and alFtude are not
consistent across the enFre height of the atmosphere; however, they are consistent within
atmospheric layers. Therefore, scienFsts split the atmosphere into various layers, and knowing
how temperature behaves in each layer, arrived at an equaFon which relates temperature to
alFtude that will work for any layer- so long as you plug in the correct figures for the layer you're
in. Let's look at this graphically first, though.

Figure above shows the change in measured temperature from sea level to approximately 90
km elevaFon. The layer adjacent to the surface of the earth is the Troposphere and it extends to
approximately 11 km. This is naturally the layer we live in, and also the layer in which the
majority of our weather occurs.

NoFce how in each layer the temperature behaves slightly differently: someFmes it decreases
with alFtude (as in the Troposphere), someFmes it remains steady (the "pause" layers), and in
some layers it actually increases, such as in the layers of the Stratosphere - this is due to
something with the ozone layer which I can't say I understand completely.

Having seen the relaFonship between temperature and alFtude graphically, let's now examine it
mathemaFcally. This is the ISA formula that relates temperature to alFtude:

- temperature equaFon

Where:
T = temperature we want to find
T
= starFng temperature of the atmospheric region or layer
1
a = the rate of temperature change in the given region - the slope of our line
h = alFtude (height)
h base height of the atmospheric region or layer
=
1

The two

variables T and h are self-explanatory: one of them we must measure in order to solve for the
other. The remaining three variables are given by the ISA model and they serve to describe the
atmospheric layer of interest. T1 is the temperature at the lower bound of the given
layer, h1 the starFng alFtude of the layer, and a the rate of change of temperature in the given
layer.
ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION

Our atmosphere is a dynamic mixture of gases that envelop the Earth. Two gases, nitrogen
and oxygen, make up most of the atmosphere by volume. They are indeed important for
maintaining life and driving a number of processes near the surface of the Earth. Many of
the so called "minor gases" (known here as "variable gases") play an equally important role
in the Earth system. These gases include those that have a significant impact on the heat
budget and the availability of moisture across the Earth. The atmosphere is not a
homogeneous mass of gases, but has a layered structure as defined by vertical temperature
changes.

Two broad regions can be identified using air composition as a means to subdivide the
atmosphere. The heterosphere is the outer most sphere where gases are distributed in
distinct layers by gravity according to their atomic weight. Extending from an altitude of 80
km (50 mi), the lightest elements (hydrogen and helium) are found at the at the outer
margins of the atmosphere. The heavier elements (nitrogen and oxygen) are found at the
base of the layer.

The homosphere lies between the Earth's surface and the heterosphere. Gases are nearly
uniformly mixed through this layer even though density decreases with height above the
surface. The only exception is the "ozone layer" from 19 to 50 km (12 to 31 mi) and near
surface variations in water vapor, carbon dioxide and air pollutants.

2.1 Constant Gases

Nitrogen, oxygen and argon are called the "constant gases" because their concentraFon has
remained virtually the same for much of recent earth history. Nitrogen (78%)is a relaFvely inert
gas produced primarily by volcanic acFvity. It is an important component of protein in meat,
milk, eggs and the Fssues of plants, especially grains and members of the pea family. It cannot
be ingested directly by organisms but made available to plants, and then to animals, by
compounds in the soil. Most atmospheric nitrogen enters the soil by nitrogen-fixing
microorganisms.
Oxygen (21%) is important for plant and animal respiratory processes. It is also important to
chemical reacFons (oxidaFon) that breakdown rock materials (chemical weathering). Without
oxygen, things cannot burn either. Free oxygen in the atmosphere is a product of plant
photosynthesis. Plants take up carbon dioxide and in the process of photosynthesis release
oxygen.
Argon (.93%) is a colorless, odorless relaFvely inert gas, the reason it use to electric light bulbs,
fluorescent tubes. It is used to form inert atmosphere for arc welding, and growing
semiconductor crystals.

2.2 Variable Gases

The so called "variable gases" are those present in small and variable amounts. These include
carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, water vapor, and parFculates among others. Even though they
represent a Fny porFon of the atmosphere as a whole, they exert a great control over our
environment.

Gas Volume
Nitrogen (N2) 780,840 ppmv (78.084%)
Oxygen (O2) 209,460 ppmv (20.946%)
Argon (Ar) 9,340 ppmv (0.9340%)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 397 ppmv (0.0397%)
Neon (Ne) 18.18 ppmv (0.001818%)
Helium (He) 5.24 ppmv (0.000524%)
Methane (CH4) 1.79 ppmv (0.000179%)
Krypton (Kr) 1.14 ppmv (0.000114%)
Hydrogen (H2) 0.55 ppmv (0.000055%)
Nitrous oxide (N2O) 0.325 ppmv (0.0000325%)
Carbon
0.1 ppmv (0.00001%)
monoxide (CO)
Xenon (Xe) 0.09 ppmv (9×10−6%) (0.000009%)
Ozone (O3) 0.0 to 0.07 ppmv (0 to 7×10−6%)
Nitrogen
0.02 ppmv (2×10−6%) (0.000002%)
dioxide (NO2)
Iodine (I2) 0.01 ppmv (1×10−6%) (0.000001%)
Ammonia (NH3) Trace
Not included in above dry atmosphere:
~0.25% by mass over full atmosphere, locally 0.001%–
Water vapor (H2O)
5% [3]

2.2.1 Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide (CO2) makes up only .036% of the atmosphere by volume. Carbon
dioxide is essenFal to photosyntheFc processes of plants. Huge quanFFes of carbon are
stored in plant Fssue, deposits of coal, peat, oil, and gas. Carbon dioxide is taken in by
plants and during photosynthesis is combined with water and energy to form oxygen
and carbohydrates. The stored carbohydrates are used to fuel plant respiraFon and
growth. Carbon is also stored in limestone rocks that have formed by the compacFon of
carbonate-rich shells of ocean life. Because vegetaFon takes in so much carbon dioxide,
we o_en refer to plants as a "sink" for it.
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere varies throughout the year, decreasing slightly during
the summer as plants leaf out, and then increases during the winter as plants go
dormant and photosynthesis decreases.
2.2.2 Methane

Methane (CH4) is a greenhouse gas contribuFng to about 18% of global warming and has
been on the rise over the last several decades. Though methane makes up far less of the
atmosphere (.0002%) than carbon dioxide, it is 20 Fmes more potent than CO2 as a
greenhouse gas. Methane is a product of the decomposiFon of organic mafer, with
major natural sources being that which occurs from wetlands, termites, the oceans,
and hydrates.

Figure: Natural Sources of Methane

A major source of methane is from termites. Termites eat wood and produce methane
as a result of the breakdown of cellulose in their digesFve tracts. They are thought to be
responsible for 11% of the methane in the atmosphere (some esFmates are as high as
20% - 40%). The clearing of the rain forests greatly impacts termite populaFons and in
turn the methane content of the atmosphere. When a patch of rain forest is cleared,
termite populaFons explode due to the ample food source that is le_ behind.
Human acFviFes have contributed to the rise of methane in our atmosphere. Landfills,
rice paddy agriculture, natural gas systems, and livestock producFon appear to be
significant contributors of anthropogenic sources of methane.

2.2.3 Water Vapor

Water vapor is an extremely important gas found in the atmosphere. It can vary from 4%
in the steamy tropics to nearly nonexistent in the cold dry regions of the AntarcFc.
Water vapor is a good absorber of Earth's outgoing radiaFon and thus is considered a
greenhouse gas. When water vapor is converted to a liquid during condensaFon, clouds
 are formed. Clouds are good absorbers of radiaFon given off by the Earth's surface. The
absorpFon of this energy raises the temperature of the air. But clouds are generally light-
colored and hence reflect incoming solar radiaFon off their tops. The reflected light is
sent back to space, never reaching the ground to warm the Earth. Thus clouds can have
either a warming or a cooling effect on air temperature.

2.2.4 Nitrogen Oxides

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) consist of nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrous oxide
(N2O) and are formed when nitrogen (N2) combines with oxygen (O2). Their lifespans in
the atmosphere range from one to seven days for nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide, to
170 years for nitrous oxide.

Automobiles and other mobile sources contribute about half of the NOx that is emifed.
Electric power plant boilers produce about 40% of the NOx emissions from staFonary
sources. AddiFonally, substanFal emissions are also added by such anthropogenic
sources as industrial boilers, incinerators, gas turbines, reciprocaFng spark igniFon and
Diesel engines in staFonary sources, iron and steel mills, cement manufacture, glass
manufacture, petroleum refineries, and nitric acid manufacture. Biogenic or natural
sources of nitrogen oxides include lightning, forest fires, grass fires, trees, bushes,
grasses, and yeasts. These various sources produce differing amounts of each oxide.

2.2.5 Ozone
Ozone is found in two regions of the Earth's atmosphere – at ground level and in the
upper regions of the atmosphere. Both types of ozone have the same chemical
composiFon (O3). While upper atmospheric ozone protects the earth from the sun's
harmful rays, ground level ozone is the main component of smog.

2.2.5.1 Tropospheric Ozone

Ozone (O3) is a consFtuent of the troposphere (it is also an important consFtuent

of some regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer).
Photochemical and chemical reacFons involving it drive many of the chemical
processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high
concentraFons brought about by human acFviFes (largely incomplete
combusFon of fossil fuels, such as gasoline, diesel, etc.), it is a pollutant, and a
 consFtuent of smog. Many highly energeFc reacFons produce it, ranging from
combusFon to photocopying. O_en laser printers will have a smell of ozone,
which in high concentraFons is toxic. Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent readily
reacFng with other chemical compounds to make many possibly toxic oxides.

The troposphere extends from the surface of the Earth to between 12 and 20
kilometers above the surface of the Earth and consists of many layers. Ozone is
more concentrated above the mixing layer, or ground layer. Ground-level ozone,
though less concentrated than ozone alo_, is more of a problem because of
its health effects.

Tropospheric ozone is a greenhouse gas and iniFates the chemical removal

of methane and other hydrocarbons from the atmosphere. Thus, its
concentraFon affects how long these compounds remain in the air.

Satellites are able to measure tropospheric ozone. Measurements specifically of

ground-level ozone require in situ monitoring technology.

➢ Forma;on
The majority of tropospheric ozone formaFon occurs when nitrogen
oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and volaFle organic compounds (VOCs), such
as xylene, react in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight. NOx, CO, and VOCs
are called ozone precursors. Motor vehicle exhaust, industrial emissions, and
chemical solvents are the major anthropogenic sources of these chemicals. Another
source is windshield washer fluid. Although these precursors o_en originate in urban
areas, winds can carry NOx hundreds of kilometers, causing ozone formaFon to
occur in less populated regions as well. Methane, a VOC whose atmospheric
concentraFon has increased tremendously during the last century, contributes to
ozone formaFon but on a global scale rather than in local or regional photochemical
smog episodes. In situaFons where this exclusion of methane from the VOC group of
substances is not obvious, the term Non-Methane VOC (NMVOC) is o_en used.
The chemical reacFons involved in tropospheric ozone formaFon are a series of
complex cycles in which carbon monoxide and VOCs are oxidised to water vapour
and carbon dioxide. The reacFons involved in this process are illustrated here with
CO but similar reacFons occur for VOC as well. The oxidaFon begins with the
reacFon of CO with the hydroxyl radical (•OH).[1] The radical intermediate formed by
this reacts rapidly with oxygen to give a peroxy radical HO2•
•OH + CO → •HOCO
•HOCO + O2 → HO2• + CO2
 Peroxy radicals then go on to react with NO to give NO2 which is photolysed to give
atomic oxygen and through reacFon with oxygen a molecule of ozone:
HO2• + NO → •OH + NO2
NO2 + hν → NO + O(3P)
O(3P) + O2 → O3
The balance of this sequence of chemical reacFons is:
CO + 2O2 + hν → CO2 + O3
The amount of ozone produced through these reacFons can be calculated using
the Leighton relaFonship.
This cycle involving HOx and NOx is terminated by the reacFon of OH with NO2 to
form nitric acid or by the reacFon of peroxy radicals with each other to
form peroxides. The chemistry involving VOCs is much more complex but the
same reacFon of peroxy radicals oxidizing NO to NO2 is the criFcal step leading
to ozone formaFon.

➢ Effects
Ozone in the air we breathe can harm our health—typically on hot, sunny days when
ozone can reach unhealthy levels. Even relaFvely low levels of ozone can cause
health effects. People with lung disease, children, older adults, and people who are
acFve outdoors may be parFcularly sensiFve to ozone.

Children are at greatest risk from exposure to ozone because their lungs are sFll
developing and they are more likely to be acFve outdoors when ozone levels are
high, which increases their exposure. Children are also more likely than adults to
have asthma.

Breathing ozone can trigger a variety of health problems including chest pain,
coughing, throat irritaFon, and congesFon. It can worsen bronchiFs, emphysema,
and asthma. Ground level ozone also can reduce lung funcFon and inflame the
linings of the lungs. Repeated exposure may permanently scar lung Fssue.

Ozone can:

• Make it more difficult to breathe deeply and vigorously.

• Cause shortness of breath and pain when taking a deep breath.
• Cause coughing and sore or scratchy throat.
• Inflame and damage the airways.
 • Aggravate lung diseases such as asthma, emphysema, and chronic
bronchiFs.
• Increase the frequency of asthma afacks.
• Make the lungs more suscepFble to infecFon.
• ConFnue to damage the lungs even when the symptoms have
disappeared.

Ozone also affects sensiFve vegetaFon and ecosystems, including forests, parks,
wildlife refuges and wilderness areas. In parFcular, ozone harms sensiFve
vegetaFon, including trees and plants during the growing season.

Plant species that are sensiFve to ozone and potenFally at an increased risk from
exposure include trees such as black cherry, quaking aspen, ponderosa pine and
cofonwood. These trees are found in many areas of the country.

Ground level ozone can have harmful effects on sensiFve vegetaFon and
ecosystems. When sufficient ozone enters the leaves of a plant, it can:

• Interfere with the ability of sensiFve plants to produce and store food.
• Visibly damage the leaves of trees and other plants, harming the
appearance of vegetaFon in urban areas, naFonal parks, and recreaFon
areas.

In addiFon to reduced tree growth and visible injury to leaves, conFnued ozone
exposure over Fme can lead to increased suscepFbility of sensiFve plant species
to disease, damage from insects, effects of other pollutants, compeFFon, and
harm from severe weather. These effects can also have adverse impacts on
ecosystems, including loss of species diversity and changes to habitat quality and
water and nutrient cycles.

➢ Reduc;on & Controlling

• We can reduce the amount of fuel used, we can control fuel vented to the
atmosphere, we can maintain our catalyFc converters, and we can make sure all
combusFon sources use them.

• Conserve electricity and set your air condiFoner at a higher temperature.

• Choose a cleaner commute—share a ride to work or use public transportaFon.

Bicycle or walk to errands when possible.

• Refuel cars and trucks a_er dusk.

 • Combine errands and reduce trips.

• Limit engine idling.

• Use household, workshop, and garden chemicals in ways that keep evaporaFon
to a minimum, or try to delay using them when poor air quality is forecast.

• One way to decrease ozone formaFon is to decrease emissions of NOx and VOCs
from vehicles. Reducing these pollutants is one of the chief benefits of
alternaFve fuels. Burning simple hydrocarbons such as propane and methane,
using other alternaFve power sources, and operaFng vehicles properly can cut
reacFve exhaust emissions dramaFcally. Emissions-trapping refueling systems
and low-volaFlity fuels also cut down on evaporaFve emissions.

2.2.5.2 Stratospheric Ozone

Ozone present in stratosphere is in the form of a layer, i.e. Ozone Layer. This is the layer
in Earth's atmosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's UV radiaFon. It contains relaFvely
high concentraFons of ozone (O3), although it is sFll very small with regard to ordinary
oxygen, and is less than ten parts per million, the average ozone concentraFon in Earth's
atmosphere being only about 0.6 parts per million. The ozone layer is mainly found in
the lower porFon of the stratosphere from approximately 20 to 30 kilometres
(12 to 19 mi) above Earth, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically.
The ozone layer absorbs 97–99% of the Sun's medium-frequency ultraviolet light (from
about 200 nm to 315 nm wavelength), which otherwise would potenFally damage
exposed life forms on Earth.

➢ Source
In 1930 BriFsh geophysicist Sydney Chapman described a process in which strong UV
photons photolyze oxygen molecules (O2) into highly reacFve oxygen atoms. These
atoms rapidly combine with O2 to form ozone (O3). This process is sFll recognized as the
only significant source of ozone to the stratosphere.
Ozone in the Earth's stratosphere is created by ultraviolet
light striking oxygen molecules containing two oxygen atoms(O2), spli}ng them into
individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then combines with
unbroken O2 to create ozone, O3. The ozone molecule is also unstable (although, in the
stratosphere, long-lived) and when ultraviolet light hits ozone it splits into a molecule of
O2 and an atom of atomic oxygen, a conFnuing process called the ozone-oxygen cycle,
thus creaFng an ozone layer in the stratosphere, the region from about 10 to 50
kilometers (33,000 to 160,000 _) above Earth's surface. About 90% of the ozone in our
atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere. Ozone concentraFons are greatest
between about 20 and 40 kilometers (66,000 and 130,000 _), where they range from
about 2 to 8 parts per million. If all of the ozone were compressed to the pressure of the
air at sea level, it would be only 3 millimeters thick.

➢ Distribu;on
The thickness of the ozone layer—that is, the total amount of ozone in a column
overhead—varies by a large factor worldwide, being in general smaller near the equator
and larger towards the poles. It also varies with season, being in general thicker during
the spring and thinner during the autumn in the northern hemisphere. The reasons for
this laFtude and seasonal dependence are complicated, involving atmospheric
circulaFon paferns as well as solar intensity.

The ozone layer is higher in alFtude in the tropics, and lower in alFtude in the extra
tropics, especially in the Polar Regions. This alFtude variaFon of ozone results from the
slow circulaFon that li_s the ozone-poor air out of the troposphere into the
stratosphere. As this air slowly rises in the tropics, ozone is produced by the overhead
sun which photolyzes oxygen molecules. As this slow circulaFon bends towards the mid-
laFtudes, it carries the ozone-rich air from the tropical middle stratosphere to the mid-
and-high laFtudes lower stratosphere. The high ozone concentraFons at high laFtudes
are due to the accumulaFon of ozone at lower alFtudes.

The total column amount of ozone generally increases as we move from the tropics to
higher laFtudes in both hemispheres. However, the overall column amounts are greater
in the northern hemisphere high laFtudes than in the southern hemisphere high
laFtudes. In addiFon, while the highest amounts of column ozone over the ArcFc occur
in the northern spring (March–April), the opposite is true over the AntarcFc, where the
lowest amounts of column ozone occur in the southern spring (September–October).

➢ Ozone Deple;on
Ozone depleFon describes two disFnct but related phenomena observed since the late
1970s: a steady decline of about 4% per decade in the total volume
of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springFme
decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar regions. The lafer phenomenon is
referred to as the ozone hole.

The details of polar ozone hole formaFon differ from that of mid-laFtude thinning, but
the most important process in both is catalyFc destrucFon of ozone by
atomic halogens. The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photo
dissociaFon of man-made halocarbon refrigerants (CFCs,freons, halons). These
compounds are transported into the stratosphere a_er being emifed at the surface.

Ozone is a highly reacFve molecule that contains three oxygen atoms. It is constantly
being formed and broken down in the high atmosphere, 6.2 to 31 miles (10 to 50
kilometers) above Earth, in the region called the stratosphere.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), chemicals found mainly in spray aerosols heavily used by
industrialized naFons for much of the past 50 years, are the primary culprits in ozone
layer breakdown. When CFCs reach the upper atmosphere, they are exposed to
ultraviolet rays, which cause them to break down into substances that include chlorine.
The chlorine reacts with the oxygen atoms in ozone and rips apart the ozone molecule.
As explained above, the primary cause of ozone depleFon is the presence of chlorine-
containing source gases (primarily CFCs and related halocarbons). In the presence of UV
light, these gases dissociate, releasing chlorine atoms, which then go on to catalyze
ozone destrucFon. The Cl-catalyzed ozone depleFon can take place in the gas phase, but
it is dramaFcally enhanced in the presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs).[17]

These polar stratospheric clouds (PSC) form during winter, in the extreme cold. Polar
winters are dark, consisFng of 3 months without solar radiaFon (sunlight). The lack of
sunlight contributes to a decrease in temperature and the polar vortex traps and chills
air. Temperatures hover around or below −80 °C. These low temperatures form cloud
parFcles. There are three types of PSC clouds—nitric acid trihydrate clouds, slowly
cooling water-ice clouds, and rapid cooling water-ice (nacerous) clouds—provide
surfaces for chemical reacFons whose products will, in the spring lead to ozone
destrucFon.

One atom of chlorine can destroy more than a hundred thousand ozone molecules,
according to the the U.S. Environmental ProtecFon Agency.
The ozone layer above the AntarcFc has been parFcularly impacted by polluFon since
the mid-1980s. This region’s low temperatures speed up the conversion of CFCs to
chlorine. In the southern spring and summer, when the sun shines for long periods of
the day, chlorine reacts with ultraviolet rays, destroying ozone on a massive scale, up to
65 percent. This is what some people erroneously refer to as the "ozone hole." In other
regions, the ozone layer has deteriorated by about 20 percent.
About 90 percent of CFCs currently in the atmosphere were emifed by industrialized
countries in the Northern Hemisphere, including the United States and Europe. These
countries banned CFCs by 1996, and the amount of chlorine in the atmosphere is falling
now. But scienFsts esFmate it will take another 50 years for chlorine levels to return to
their natural levels.

➢ Consequences of Ozone Deple;on

Today, there is widespread concern that the ozone layer is deterioraFng due to the
release of polluFon containing the chemicals chlorine and bromine. Such deterioraFon
allows large amounts of ultraviolet B rays to reach Earth, which can cause skin cancer
and cataracts in humans and harm animals as well.
Extra ultraviolet B radiaFon reaching Earth also inhibits the reproducFve cycle of
phytoplankton, single-celled organisms such as algae that make up the bofom rung of
the food chain. Biologists fear that reducFons in phytoplankton populaFons will in turn
lower the populaFons of other animals. Researchers also have documented changes in
the reproducFve rates of young fish, shrimp, and crabs as well as frogs and salamanders
exposed to excess ultraviolet B.
Vitamin D is produced in the skin by ultraviolet light. Thus, higher UV-B exposure raises
human vitamin D in those deficient in it. While higher level of Vitamin D is associated
with higher mortality, the body has mechanisms that prevent sunlight from producing
too much Vitamin D.

Increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone. Ground-level ozone is

generally recognized to be a health risk, as ozone is toxic due to its
strong oxidant properFes. At this Fme, ozone at ground level is produced mainly by the
acFon of UV radiaFon on combusFon gases from vehicle exhausts.

The most common forms of skin cancer in humans, basal and squamous cell carcinomas
have been strongly linked to UVB exposure. The mechanism by which UVB induces these
cancers is well understood—absorpFon of UVB radiaFon causes the pyrimidine bases in
the DNA molecule to form dimers, resulFng in transcripFon errors when the DNA
replicates. These cancers are relaFvely mild and rarely fatal, although the treatment of
squamous cell carcinoma someFmes requires extensive reconstrucFve surgery.

➢ Controlling Ozone Deple;on

The most important step towards protecFng the ozone layer is to reduce the producFon
of CFCS.

Following are the ways to reduce CFC's or Chlorofluorocarbons on small scale:-

• Only those refrigerators should be used that are CFC free because refrigerators
contain high amount of CFC's.
• Air condiFoners should not be used in order to avoid the increased amount of
CFC's.
• Also the deodorants which we use in our daily life should be checked if it has a
mark staFng that it is CFC free, before buying.
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to
the Vienna ConvenFon for the ProtecFon of the Ozone Layer) is an
internaFonal treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the producFon
of numerous substances believed to be responsible for ozone depleFon. The treaty was
opened for signature on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989,
followed by a first meeFng in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven
revisions. It is believed that if the internaFonal agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer
is expected to recover by 2050. Due to its widespread adopFon and implementaFon it
has been hailed as an example of excepFonal internaFonal co-operaFon. The treaty is
structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that have been shown to
play a role in ozone depleFon. All of these ozone depleFng substances contain
either chlorine or bromine (substances containing only fluorine do not harm the ozone
layer). The Montreal Protocol includes a unique adjustment provision that enables the
ParFes to the Protocol to respond quickly to new scienFfic informaFon and agree to
accelerate the reducFons required on chemicals already covered by the Protocol.
These adjustments are then automaFcally applicable to all countries that raFfied the
Protocol.

Since the Montreal Protocol came into effect, the atmospheric concentraFons of the
most important chlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have either
leveled off or decreased. Halon concentraFons have conFnued to increase, as the halons
presently stored in fire exFnguishers are released, but their rate of increase has slowed
and their abundances are expected to begin to decline by about 2020.
2.3 CONCLUSION

1. Temperature does not increase/decrease linearly as we go up the atmosphere. It

depends on certain factors.

2. Ozone present in different layers of atmosphere can be both useful and harmful for
living beings.

3. Tropospheric ozone is really harmful for the whole environment.

4. Stratospheric ozone is important for our survival on earth.

5. The main reason for ozone depleFon is increase in the amount of CFC’s.

6. Montreal Protocol is the most important step taken to control the amount of CFC’s.