ATMOSPHERE

&
ITS
TRACE
ELEMENTS
 Regions of the Ionosphere

The ionosphere is broken down into the D, E and F regions. The

breakdown is based on what wavelength of solar radiation is absorbed in
that region most frequently.

The D region is the lowest in altitude, though it absorbs the most

energetic radiation, hard x-rays. The D region doesn't have a definite
starting and stopping point, but includes the ionization that occurs below
about 90km.

The E region peaks at about 105km. It absorbs soft x-rays.

The F region starts around 105km and has a maximum around 600km. It
is the highest of all of the regions. Extreme ultra-violet radiation (EUV) is
absorbed there.

 The Sun's Effect on the Ionosphere

Invisible layers of ions and electrons are found in the Earth's atmosphere.
We call this region of atmosphere the ionosphere. The main source of
these layers is the Sun's ultraviolet light which ionizes atoms and
molecules in the Earth's upper atmosphere. During this process, electrons
are knocked free from molecules or particles in the atmosphere.

Flares and other big events on the Sun produce increased ultraviolet, x-
ray and gamma-ray photons that arrive at the Earth just 8 minutes later
(other particles from the Sun may arrive days later) and dramatically
increase the ionization that happens in the atmosphere. So, the more
active the Sun, the thicker the ionosphere.
This image shows how different types of
solar radiation (x-rays to infrared radiation)
penetrate into the Earth's atmosphere. It is
this solar radiation that ionizes the upper
atmosphere, creating the ionosphere.

1.1.1.3 Mesosphere

This layer extends from around 31 miles (50 km) above the Earth's surface to 53
miles (85 km). The gases, including the oxygen molecules, continue to become
denser as one descends. As such, temperatures increase as one descends rising
to about 5°F (-15°C) near the bottom of this layer. The gases in the mesosphere
are now thick enough to slow down meteors hurtling into the atmosphere,
where they burn up, leaving fiery trails in the night sky. Both the stratosphere
(next layer down) and the mesosphere are considered the middle atmosphere.
The transition boundary which separates the mesosphere from the stratosphere
is called the strato pause.

1.1.1.4 Stratosphere
 The Stratosphere extends around 31 miles (50 km) down to anywhere from 4 to
12 miles (6 to 20 km) above the Earth's surface. This layer holds 19 percent of the
atmosphere's gases but very little water vapor.

In this region the temperature increases with height. Heat is produced in the
process of the formation of Ozone and this heat is responsible for temperature
increases from an average -60°F (-51°C) at tropopause to a maximum of about
5°F (-15°C) at the top of the stratosphere.

This increase in temperature with height means warmer air is located above
cooler air. This prevents "convection" as there is no upward vertical movement of
the gases. As such the location of the bottom of this layer is readily seen by the
'anvil-shaped' tops of cumulonimbus clouds.

1.1.1.5 Troposphere

Known as the lower atmosphere almost all weather occurs in this region. The
troposphere begins at the Earth's surface and extends from 4 to 12 miles (6 to 20
km) high.

The height of the troposphere varies from the equator to the poles. At the equator
it is around 11-12 miles (18-20 km) high, at 50°N and 50°S, 5½ miles and at the
poles just under four miles high. As the density of the gases in this layer decrease
with height, the air becomes thinner. Therefore, the temperature in the troposphere
also decreases with height in response. As one climbs higher, the temperature
drops from an average around 62°F (17°C) to -60°F (-51°C) at the tropopause.

1.1.2 Other layers

Within the five principal layers which are largely determined by temperature, several
secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties:
 The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. In this layer ozone
concentrations are about 2 to 8 parts per million, which is much higher than in
the lower atmosphere but still very small compared to the main components of
the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere
from about 15–35 km.
 The homosphere and heterosphere are defined by whether the atmospheric
gases are well mixed. The surfaced-based homosphere includes the troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere, and the lowest part of the thermosphere, where the
chemical composition of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight
 because the gases are mixed by turbulence. Above this altitude lies the
heterosphere which includes the exosphere and most of the themosphere. Here
the chemical composition varies with altitude. This is because the distance that
particles can move without colliding with one another is large compared with the
size of motions that cause mixing. This allows the gases to stratify by molecular
weight, with the heavier ones such as oxygen and nitrogen present only near the
bottom of the heterosphere.
 The planetary boundary layer is the part of the troposphere that is closest to
Earth's surface and is directly affected by it, mainly through turbulent diffusion.
During the day the planetary boundary layer usually is well-mixed, whereas at
night it becomes stably stratified with weak or intermittent mixing.

1.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1.2.1 Pressure and thickness

The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 standard atmosphere
(atm). Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area
at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies
with location and weather. If the atmosphere had a uniform density, it
would terminate abruptly at an altitude of 8.50 km.
In summary, the mass of Earth's atmosphere is distributed approximately as
follows:
 50% is below 5.6 km (18,000 ft).
 90% is below 16 km (52,000 ft).

 99.99997% is below 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft), the Kármán line. By
international convention, this marks the beginning of space where human
travelers are considered astronauts.

1.2.2 Density and Mass

The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m 3 (1.2 g/L). Density is not
measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature,
pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air. Atmospheric density
decreases as the altitude increases. The average mass of the atmosphere is about
5 quadrillion (5×1015) tones or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the
American National Center for Atmospheric Research, "The total mean mass of
the atmosphere is 5.1480×1018 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2
 or 1.5×1015 kg depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are
used. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27×10 16 kg and the dry air
mass as 5.1352 ±0.0003×1018 kg.

1.3 ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE IN RELATION TO ALTITUDE

Measurements have shown that the relationship between temperature and altitude are not
consistent across the entire height of the atmosphere; however, they are consistent within
atmospheric layers. Therefore, scientists split the atmosphere into various layers, and knowing
how temperature behaves in each layer, arrived at an equation which relates temperature to
altitude that will work for any layer- so long as you plug in the correct figures for the layer you're
in. Let's look at this graphically first, though.

Figure above shows the change in measured temperature from sea level to approximately 90
km elevation. The layer adjacent to the surface of the earth is the Troposphere and it extends to
approximately 11 km. This is naturally the layer we live in, and also the layer in which the
majority of our weather occurs.
Notice how in
each layer the
temperature
behaves slightly
differently:
sometimes it
decreases with
altitude (as in the
Troposphere),
sometimes it
remains steady
(the "pause"
layers), and in
some layers it
actually increases,
such as in the
layers of the
Stratosphere -
this is due to
something with
the ozone layer
which I can't say I
understand
completely.

Having seen the

relationship between temperature and altitude graphically, let's now examine it mathematically.
This is the ISA formula that relates temperature to altitude:

- temperature equation

Where:
T = temperature we want to find
T1 = starting temperature of the atmospheric region or layer
a = the rate of temperature change in the given region - the slope of our line
h = altitude (height)
base height of the atmospheric region or layer
h1 =
The two variables T and h are self-explanatory: one of them we must measure in order to solve
for the other. The remaining three variables are given by the ISA model and they serve to
describe the atmospheric layer of interest. T1 is the temperature at the lower bound of the
given layer, h1 the starting altitude of the layer, and a the rate of change of temperature in the
given layer.

ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION
Our atmosphere is a dynamic mixture of gases that envelop the Earth. Two
gases, nitrogen and oxygen, make up most of the atmosphere by volume.
They are indeed important for maintaining life and driving a number of
processes near the surface of the Earth. Many of the so called "minor gases"
(known here as "variable gases") play an equally important role in the Earth
system. These gases include those that have a significant impact on the heat
budget and the availability of moisture across the Earth. The atmosphere is
not a homogeneous mass of gases, but has a layered structure as defined by
vertical temperature changes.
Two broad regions can be identified using air composition as a means to
subdivide the atmosphere. The heterosphere is the outer most sphere where
gases are distributed in distinct layers by gravity according to their atomic
weight. Extending from an altitude of 80 km (50 mi), the lightest elements
(hydrogen and helium) are found at the outer margins of the atmosphere.
The heavier elements (nitrogen and oxygen) are found at the base of the
layer.
The homosphere lies between the Earth's surface and the heterosphere.
Gases are nearly uniformly mixed through this layer even though density
decreases with height above the surface. The only exception is the "ozone
layer" from 19 to 50 km (12 to 31 mi) and near surface variations in water
vapor, carbon dioxide and air pollutants.

2.1 Constant Gases

Nitrogen, oxygen and argon are called the "constant gases" because their concentration has
remained virtually the same for much of recent earth history. Nitrogen (78%)is a relatively inert
gas produced primarily by volcanic activity. It is an important component of protein in meat,
milk, eggs and the tissues of plants, especially grains and members of the pea family. It cannot
be ingested directly by organisms but made available to plants, and then to animals, by
compounds in the soil. Most atmospheric nitrogen enters the soil by nitrogen-fixing
microorganisms.

Oxygen (21%) is important for plant and animal respiratory processes. It is also important to
chemical reactions (oxidation) that breakdown rock materials (chemical weathering). Without
oxygen, things cannot burn either. Free oxygen in the atmosphere is a product of plant
photosynthesis. Plants take up carbon dioxide and in the process of photosynthesis release
oxygen.
Argon (.93%) is a colorless, odorless relatively inert gas, the reason it use to electric light bulbs,
fluorescent tubes. It is used to form inert atmosphere for arc welding, and growing
semiconductor crystals.

2.2 Variable Gases

The so called "variable gases" are those present in small and variable amounts. These include
carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, water vapor, and particulates among others. Even though they
represent a tiny portion of the atmosphere as a whole, they exert a great control over our
environment.

Gas Volume

Nitrogen (N2) 780,840 ppmv (78.084%)

Oxygen (O2) 209,460 ppmv (20.946%)

Argon (Ar) 9,340 ppmv (0.9340%)

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 397 ppmv (0.0397%)

Neon (Ne) 18.18 ppmv (0.001818%)

Helium (He) 5.24 ppmv (0.000524%)

Methane (CH4) 1.79 ppmv (0.000179%)

Krypton (Kr) 1.14 ppmv (0.000114%)

Hydrogen (H2) 0.55 ppmv (0.000055%)

Nitrous oxide (N2O) 0.325 ppmv (0.0000325%)

Carbon monoxide (CO) 0.1 ppmv (0.00001%)

0.09 ppmv (9×10−6%) (0.000009%)

Xenon (Xe)

Ozone (O3) 0.0 to 0.07 ppmv (0 to 7×10−6%)

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 0.02 ppmv (2×10−6%) (0.000002%)

Iodine (I2) 0.01 ppmv (1×10−6%) (0.000001%)

Ammonia (NH3) Trace

Not included in above dry atmosphere:

[3]
Water vapor (H2O) ~0.25% by mass over full atmosphere, locally 0.001%–5%

2.2.1 Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide (CO2) makes up only .036% of the atmosphere by volume. Carbon
dioxide is essential to photosynthetic processes of plants. Huge quantities of carbon are
stored in plant tissue, deposits of coal, peat, oil, and gas. Carbon dioxide is taken in by
plants and during photosynthesis is combined with water and energy to form oxygen
and carbohydrates. The stored carbohydrates are used to fuel plant respiration and
growth. Carbon is also stored in limestone rocks that have formed by the compaction of
carbonate-rich shells of ocean life. Because vegetation takes in so much carbon dioxide,
we often refer to plants as a "sink" for it.

Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere varies throughout the year, decreasing slightly during
the summer as plants leaf out, and then increases during the winter as plants go
dormant and photosynthesis decreases.
2.2.2 Methane

Methane (CH4) is a greenhouse gas contributing to about 18% of global warming and has
been on the rise over the last several decades. Though methane makes up far less of the
atmosphere (.0002%) than carbon dioxide, it is 20 times more potent than CO 2 as a
greenhouse gas. Methane is a product of the decomposition of organic matter, with
major natural sources being that which occurs from wetlands, termites, the oceans, and
hydrates.

Figure: Natural Sources of Methane

A major source of methane is from termites. Termites eat wood and produce methane
as a result of the breakdown of cellulose in their digestive tracts. They are thought to be
responsible for 11% of the methane in the atmosphere (some estimates are as high as
20% - 40%). The clearing of the rain forests greatly impacts termite populations and in
turn the methane content of the atmosphere. When a patch of rain forest is cleared,
termite populations explode due to the ample food source that is left behind.

Human activities have contributed to the rise of methane in our atmosphere. Landfills,
rice paddy agriculture, natural gas systems, and livestock production appear to be
significant contributors of anthropogenic sources of methane.

2.2.3 Water Vapor

Water vapor is an extremely important gas found in the atmosphere. It can vary from 4%
in the steamy tropics to nearly nonexistent in the cold dry regions of the Antarctic.
 Water vapor is a good absorber of Earth's outgoing radiation and thus is considered a
greenhouse gas. When water vapor is converted to a liquid during condensation, clouds
are formed. Clouds are good absorbers of radiation given off by the Earth's surface. The
absorption of this energy raises the temperature of the air. But clouds are generally light-
colored and hence reflect incoming solar radiation off their tops. The reflected light is
sent back to space, never reaching the ground to warm the Earth. Thus clouds can have
either a warming or a cooling effect on air temperature.

2.2.4 Nitrogen Oxides

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) consist of nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrous oxide
(N2O) and are formed when nitrogen (N2) combines with oxygen (O2). Their lifespans in
the atmosphere range from one to seven days for nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide, to
170 years for nitrous oxide.

Automobiles and other mobile sources contribute about half of the NOx that is emitted.
Electric power plant boilers produce about 40% of the NOx emissions from stationary
sources. Additionally, substantial emissions are also added by such anthropogenic
sources as industrial boilers, incinerators, gas turbines, reciprocating spark ignition and
Diesel engines in stationary sources, iron and steel mills, cement manufacture, glass
manufacture, petroleum refineries, and nitric acid manufacture. Biogenic or natural
sources of nitrogen oxides include lightning, forest fires, grass fires, trees, bushes,
grasses, and yeasts. These various sources produce differing amounts of each oxide.

2.2.5 Ozone
Ozone is found in two regions of the Earth's atmosphere – at ground level and in the
upper regions of the atmosphere. Both types of ozone have the same chemical
composition (O3). While upper atmospheric ozone protects the earth from the sun's
harmful rays, ground level ozone is the main component of smog.

2.2.5.1 Tropospheric Ozone

Ozone (O3) is a constituent of the troposphere (it is also an important constituent

of some regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer).
Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical
processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high
 concentrations brought about by human activities (largely incomplete
combustion of fossil fuels, such as gasoline, diesel, etc.), it is a pollutant, and a
constituent of smog. Many highly energetic reactions produce it, ranging from
combustion to photocopying. Often laser printers will have a smell of ozone,
which in high concentrations is toxic. Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent readily
reacting with other chemical compounds to make many possibly toxic oxides.

The troposphere extends from the surface of the Earth to between 12 and 20
kilometers above the surface of the Earth and consists of many layers. Ozone is
more concentrated above the mixing layer, or ground layer. Ground-level ozone,
though less concentrated than ozone aloft, is more of a problem because of its
health effects.

Tropospheric ozone is a greenhouse gas and initiates the chemical removal of

methane and other hydrocarbons from the atmosphere. Thus, its concentration
affects how long these compounds remain in the air.

Satellites are able to measure tropospheric ozone. Measurements specifically of

ground-level ozone require in situ monitoring technology.

 Formation
The majority of tropospheric ozone formation occurs when nitrogen oxides (NOx),
carbon monoxide (CO) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as xylene, react
in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight. NOx, CO, and VOCs are called ozone
precursors. Motor vehicle exhaust, industrial emissions, and chemical solvents are
the major anthropogenic sources of these chemicals. Another source is windshield
washer fluid. Although these precursors often originate in urban areas, winds can
carry NOx hundreds of kilometers, causing ozone formation to occur in less
populated regions as well. Methane, a VOC whose atmospheric concentration has
increased tremendously during the last century, contributes to ozone formation but
on a global scale rather than in local or regional photochemical smog episodes. In
situations where this exclusion of methane from the VOC group of substances is not
obvious, the term Non-Methane VOC (NMVOC) is often used.
The chemical reactions involved in tropospheric ozone formation are a series of
complex cycles in which carbon monoxide and VOCs are oxidised to water vapour
and carbon dioxide. The reactions involved in this process are illustrated here with
CO but similar reactions occur for VOC as well. The oxidation begins with the
reaction of CO with the hydroxyl radical (•OH).[1] The radical intermediate formed by
this reacts rapidly with oxygen to give a peroxy radical HO2•
•
OH + CO → •HOCO
 •
HOCO + O2 → HO2• + CO2
Peroxy radicals then go on to react with NO to give NO 2 which is photolysed to give
atomic oxygen and through reaction with oxygen a molecule of ozone:

HO2• + NO → •OH + NO2

NO2 + hν → NO + O(3P)
O(3P) + O2 → O3
The balance of this sequence of chemical reactions is:

CO + 2O2 + hν → CO2 + O3
The amount of ozone produced through these reactions can be calculated using
the Leighton relationship.
This cycle involving HOx and NOx is terminated by the reaction of OH with NO 2 to
form nitric acid or by the reaction of peroxy radicals with each other to form
peroxides. The chemistry involving VOCs is much more complex but the same
reaction of peroxy radicals oxidizing NO to NO 2 is the critical step leading to
ozone formation.

 Effects
Ozone in the air we breathe can harm our health—typically on hot, sunny days when
ozone can reach unhealthy levels. Even relatively low levels of ozone can cause
health effects. People with lung disease, children, older adults, and people who are
active outdoors may be particularly sensitive to ozone.

Children are at greatest risk from exposure to ozone because their lungs are still
developing and they are more likely to be active outdoors when ozone levels are
high, which increases their exposure. Children are also more likely than adults to
have asthma.

Breathing ozone can trigger a variety of health problems including chest pain,
coughing, throat irritation, and congestion. It can worsen bronchitis, emphysema,
and asthma. Ground level ozone also can reduce lung function and inflame the
linings of the lungs. Repeated exposure may permanently scar lung tissue.

Ozone can:

 Make it more difficult to breathe deeply and vigorously.

 Cause shortness of breath and pain when taking a deep
breath.
 Cause coughing and sore or scratchy throat.
  Inflame and damage the airways.
 Aggravate lung diseases such as asthma, emphysema,
and chronic bronchitis.
 Increase the frequency of asthma attacks.
 Make the lungs more susceptible to infection.
 Continue to damage the lungs even when the
symptoms have disappeared.

Ozone also affects sensitive vegetation and ecosystems, including forests, parks,
wildlife refuges and wilderness areas. In particular, ozone harms sensitive
vegetation, including trees and plants during the growing season.

Plant species that are sensitive to ozone and potentially at an increased risk from
exposure include trees such as black cherry, quaking aspen, ponderosa pine and
cottonwood. These trees are found in many areas of the country.

Ground level ozone can have harmful effects on sensitive vegetation and
ecosystems. When sufficient ozone enters the leaves of a plant, it can:

 Interfere with the ability of sensitive plants to produce and store food.
 Visibly damage the leaves of trees and other plants, harming the
appearance of vegetation in urban areas, national parks, and recreation
areas.

In addition to reduced tree growth and visible injury to leaves, continued ozone
exposure over time can lead to increased susceptibility of sensitive plant species
to disease, damage from insects, effects of other pollutants, competition, and
harm from severe weather. These effects can also have adverse impacts on
ecosystems, including loss of species diversity and changes to habitat quality and
water and nutrient cycles.

 Reduction & Controlling

 We can reduce the amount of fuel used, we can control fuel vented to the
atmosphere, we can maintain our catalytic converters, and we can make sure all
combustion sources use them.
 Conserve electricity and set your air conditioner at a higher temperature.
 Choose a cleaner commute—share a ride to work or use public transportation.
Bicycle or walk to errands when possible.
 Refuel cars and trucks after dusk.
 Combine errands and reduce trips.
  Limit engine idling.
 Use household, workshop, and garden chemicals in ways that keep evaporation
to a minimum, or try to delay using them when poor air quality is forecast.
 One way to decrease ozone formation is to decrease emissions of NOx and VOCs
from vehicles. Reducing these pollutants is one of the chief benefits of
alternative fuels. Burning simple hydrocarbons such as propane and methane,
using other alternative power sources, and operating vehicles properly can cut
reactive exhaust emissions dramatically. Emissions-trapping refueling systems
and low-volatility fuels also cut down on evaporative emissions.

2.2.5.2 Stratospheric Ozone

Ozone present in stratosphere is in the form of a layer, i.e. Ozone Layer. This is the layer
in Earth's atmosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's UV radiation. It contains relatively
high concentrations of ozone (O3), although it is still very small with regard to ordinary
oxygen, and is less than ten parts per million, the average ozone concentration in Earth's
atmosphere being only about 0.6 parts per million. The ozone layer is mainly found in
the lower portion of the stratosphere from approximately 20 to 30 kilometres (12 to 19
mi) above Earth, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. The ozone
layer absorbs 97–99% of the Sun's medium-frequency ultraviolet light (from about 200
nm to 315 nm wavelength), which otherwise would potentially damage exposed life
forms on Earth.

 Source
In 1930 British geophysicist Sydney Chapman described a process in which strong UV
photons photolyze oxygen molecules (O2) into highly reactive oxygen atoms. These
atoms rapidly combine with O2 to form ozone (O3). This process is still recognized as the
only significant source of ozone to the stratosphere.
Ozone in the Earth's stratosphere is created by ultraviolet light striking oxygen molecules
containing two oxygen atoms(O2), splitting them into individual oxygen atoms (atomic
oxygen); the atomic oxygen then combines with unbroken O 2 to create ozone, O3. The
ozone molecule is also unstable (although, in the stratosphere, long-lived) and when
ultraviolet light hits ozone it splits into a molecule of O 2 and an atom of atomic oxygen, a
continuing process called the ozone-oxygen cycle, thus creating an ozone layer in the
stratosphere, the region from about 10 to 50 kilometers (33,000 to 160,000 ft) above
Earth's surface. About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is contained in the
stratosphere. Ozone concentrations are greatest between about 20 and 40 kilometers
(66,000 and 130,000 ft), where they range from about 2 to 8 parts per million. If all of
the ozone were compressed to the pressure of the air at sea level, it would be only 3
millimeters thick.
 Distribution
The thickness of the ozone layer—that is, the total amount of ozone in a column
overhead—varies by a large factor worldwide, being in general smaller near the equator
and larger towards the poles. It also varies with season, being in general thicker during
the spring and thinner during the autumn in the northern hemisphere. The reasons for
this latitude and seasonal dependence are complicated, involving atmospheric
circulation patterns as well as solar intensity.

The ozone layer is higher in altitude in the tropics, and lower in altitude in the extra
tropics, especially in the Polar Regions. This altitude variation of ozone results from the
slow circulation that lifts the ozone-poor air out of the troposphere into the
stratosphere. As this air slowly rises in the tropics, ozone is produced by the overhead
sun which photolyzes oxygen molecules. As this slow circulation bends towards the mid-
latitudes, it carries the ozone-rich air from the tropical middle stratosphere to the mid-
and-high latitudes lower stratosphere. The high ozone concentrations at high latitudes
are due to the accumulation of ozone at lower altitudes.

The total column amount of ozone generally increases as we move from the tropics to
higher latitudes in both hemispheres. However, the overall column amounts are greater
in the northern hemisphere high latitudes than in the southern hemisphere high
latitudes. In addition, while the highest amounts of column ozone over the Arctic occur
in the northern spring (March–April), the opposite is true over the Antarctic, where the
lowest amounts of column ozone occur in the southern spring (September–October).

 Ozone Depletion
Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late
1970s: a steady decline of about 4% per decade in the total volume of ozone in Earth's
stratosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric
ozone over Earth's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone
hole.

The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning, but
the most important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens.
The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photo dissociation of
man-made halocarbon refrigerants (CFCs,freons, halons). These compounds are
transported into the stratosphere after being emitted at the surface.
Ozone is a highly reactive molecule that contains three oxygen atoms. It is constantly
being formed and broken down in the high atmosphere, 6.2 to 31 miles (10 to 50
kilometers) above Earth, in the region called the stratosphere.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), chemicals found mainly in spray aerosols heavily used by
industrialized nations for much of the past 50 years, are the primary culprits in ozone
layer breakdown. When CFCs reach the upper atmosphere, they are exposed to
ultraviolet rays, which cause them to break down into substances that include chlorine.
The chlorine reacts with the oxygen atoms in ozone and rips apart the ozone molecule.
As explained above, the primary cause of ozone depletion is the presence of chlorine-
containing source gases (primarily CFCs and related halocarbons). In the presence of UV
light, these gases dissociate, releasing chlorine atoms, which then go on to catalyze
ozone destruction. The Cl-catalyzed ozone depletion can take place in the gas phase, but
it is dramatically enhanced in the presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs).[17]

These polar stratospheric clouds (PSC) form during winter, in the extreme cold. Polar
winters are dark, consisting of 3 months without solar radiation (sunlight). The lack of
sunlight contributes to a decrease in temperature and the polar vortex traps and chills
air. Temperatures hover around or below −80 °C. These low temperatures form cloud
particles. There are three types of PSC clouds—nitric acid trihydrate clouds, slowly
cooling water-ice clouds, and rapid cooling water-ice (nacerous) clouds—provide
surfaces for chemical reactions whose products will, in the spring lead to ozone
destruction.

One atom of chlorine can destroy more than a hundred thousand ozone molecules,
according to the the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
The ozone layer above the Antarctic has been particularly impacted by pollution since
the mid-1980s. This region’s low temperatures speed up the conversion of CFCs to
chlorine. In the southern spring and summer, when the sun shines for long periods of
the day, chlorine reacts with ultraviolet rays, destroying ozone on a massive scale, up to
65 percent. This is what some people erroneously refer to as the "ozone hole." In other
regions, the ozone layer has deteriorated by about 20 percent.
About 90 percent of CFCs currently in the atmosphere were emitted by industrialized
countries in the Northern Hemisphere, including the United States and Europe. These
countries banned CFCs by 1996, and the amount of chlorine in the atmosphere is falling
now. But scientists estimate it will take another 50 years for chlorine levels to return to
their natural levels.
 Consequences of Ozone Depletion
Today, there is widespread concern that the ozone layer is deteriorating due to the
release of pollution containing the chemicals chlorine and bromine. Such deterioration
allows large amounts of ultraviolet B rays to reach Earth, which can cause skin cancer
and cataracts in humans and harm animals as well.
Extra ultraviolet B radiation reaching Earth also inhibits the reproductive cycle of
phytoplankton, single-celled organisms such as algae that make up the bottom rung of
the food chain. Biologists fear that reductions in phytoplankton populations will in turn
lower the populations of other animals. Researchers also have documented changes in
the reproductive rates of young fish, shrimp, and crabs as well as frogs and salamanders
exposed to excess ultraviolet B.
Vitamin D is produced in the skin by ultraviolet light. Thus, higher UV-B exposure raises
human vitamin D in those deficient in it. While higher level of Vitamin D is associated
with higher mortality, the body has mechanisms that prevent sunlight from producing
too much Vitamin D.

Increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone. Ground-level ozone is

generally recognized to be a health risk, as ozone is toxic due to its strong oxidant
properties. At this time, ozone at ground level is produced mainly by the action of UV
radiation on combustion gases from vehicle exhausts.

The most common forms of skin cancer in humans, basal and squamous cell carcinomas
have been strongly linked to UVB exposure. The mechanism by which UVB induces these
cancers is well understood—absorption of UVB radiation causes the pyrimidine bases in
the DNA molecule to form dimers, resulting in transcription errors when the DNA
replicates. These cancers are relatively mild and rarely fatal, although the treatment of
squamous cell carcinoma sometimes requires extensive reconstructive surgery.

 Controlling Ozone Depletion

The most important step towards protecting the ozone layer is to reduce the production
of CFCS.

Following are the ways to reduce CFC's or Chlorofluorocarbons on small scale:-

 Only those refrigerators should be used that are CFC free because refrigerators
contain high amount of CFC's.
 Air conditioners should not be used in order to avoid the increased amount of
CFC's.
  Also the deodorants which we use in our daily life should be checked if it has a
mark stating that it is CFC free, before buying.

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty
designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous
substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened for
signature on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989, followed by
a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions. It is
believed that if the international agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer is expected to
recover by 2050. Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed
as an example of exceptional international co-operation. The treaty is structured around
several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that have been shown to play a role in
ozone depletion. All of these ozone depleting substances contain either chlorine or
bromine (substances containing only fluorine do not harm the ozone layer). The
Montreal Protocol includes a unique adjustment provision that enables the Parties to
the Protocol to respond quickly to new scientific information and agree to accelerate the
reductions required on chemicals already covered by the Protocol. These adjustments
are then automatically applicable to all countries that ratified the Protocol.

Since the Montreal Protocol came into effect, the atmospheric concentrations of the
most important chlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have either
leveled off or decreased. Halon concentrations have continued to increase, as the halons
presently stored in fire extinguishers are released, but their rate of increase has slowed
and their abundances are expected to begin to decline by about 2020.
2.3 CONCLUSION
1. Temperature does not increase/decrease linearly as we go up the atmosphere. It
depends on certain factors.
2. Ozone present in different layers of atmosphere can be both useful and harmful for
living beings.
3. Tropospheric ozone is really harmful for the whole environment.
4. Stratospheric ozone is important for our survival on earth.
5. The main reason for ozone depletion is increase in the amount of CFC’s.
6. Montreal Protocol is the most important step taken to control the amount of CFC’s.