Chapter Weathering, Soil, and

4 Mass Wasting
4.1 Earth’s External Processes

Weathering, mass wasting, and erosion are called external

processes because they occur at or near Earth’s surface
and are powered by energy from the Sun.

External processes are a basic part of the rock cycle because

they are responsible for transforming solid rock into
sediment.

Earth is a dynamic body

External processes are continually breaking rock apart and

moving the debris to lower elevations
4.1 Earth’s External Processes

External processes include:

1. Weathering—The physical breakdown (disintegration)

and chemical alteration (decomposition) of rocks at or
near Earth’s surface

2. Mass wasting—The transfer of rock and soil downslope

under the influence of gravity

3. Erosion—The physical removal of material by mobile

agents such as water, wind, or ice
4.2 Weathering

Two basic categories: mechanical and chemical

• Generally occur simultaneously
• Erosion transports weathered rock
4.2 Weathering

Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering is the process of breaking down rocks
into smaller pieces

 Each piece retains the same physical properties of the

original material
 Increases surface area available for chemical weathering

In nature, four important physical processes lead to the

fragmentation of rock: frost wedging, salt crystal growth,
expansion resulting from unloading (sheeting), and biological
activity.
Mechanical Weathering Increases Surface Area
Mechanical weathering adds to the effectiveness of chemical weathering
because chemical weathering can occur only on exposed surfaces.
4.2 Weathering

Mechanical Weathering
1. Frost wedging
• The mechanical breakup of rock caused by the
expansion of freezing water in cracks and crevices

• Sections of rock that are

wedged loose may tumble
into large piles called talus,
which typically form at the
base of steep, rocky cliffs.
Ice Breaks Rock In mountainous areas, frost wedging creates angular rock
fragments that accumulate to form talus slopes.
Frost Wedging
4.2 Weathering

Mechanical Weathering
2. Salt crystal growth

– Sea spray or salty groundwater evaporate in rock’s

crevices and pore spaces
– Salt crystals grow larger and weaken the rock by
pushing apart surrounding grains or enlarging tiny
cracks
– Common on rocky shorelines and in arid regions
Weathering by Expansion
4.2 Weathering

Mechanical Weathering
3. Sheeting

Sheeting occurs when concentric slabs of intrusive

igneous rock break loose
– Removal of overlying rock reduces pressure and
outer layers expand and separate
– Continued weathering results in exfoliation domes
Unloading Leads to Sheeting
Sheeting leads to the formation of an exfoliation dome.
4.2 Weathering
Mechanical Weathering

4. Biological activity
Biological activity also breaks rocks
apart
– Plant roots grow into cracks and
wedge the rock apart
– Burrowing animals expose rock
to increased weathering
– Decaying organisms produce
acids, which contribute to chemical
weathering
4.2 Weathering
Chemical Weathering
• Chemical weathering alters the internal structure of minerals
– Elements are removed or added
– Original rock decomposes into new stable material
– Makes outer portions of some rocks more susceptible to
mechanical weathering
• Water is most important agent of chemical weathering
– Oxygen dissolved in water causes oxidation
– Carbon dioxide dissolved in water forms carbonic acid (H2CO3)
• Feldspar minerals are broken down into clay minerals
• Silica is carried away by groundwater
• Quartz is very resistant to chemical weathering
 Unweathered & weathered granite

When rocks containing iron-rich minerals oxidize by oxygen

dissolved in water, a yellow to reddish-brown rust will appear
on the surface.
4.2 Weathering
Chemical Weathering
Water and Carbonic Acid

Carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolved in water (H2O) forms carbonic

acid (H2CO3)

Rain dissolves some carbon dioxide as it falls through the

atmosphere, and additional amounts released by decaying
organic matter are acquired as the water percolates
through the soil.

Carbonic acid ionizes to form the very reactive hydrogen ion

(H+) and the bicarbonate ion (HCO3-).
4.2 Weathering
Chemical Weathering
How Granite Weathers
• Chemical weathering of a silicate rock by carbonic acid
– Feldspar minerals are broken down into clay minerals
– Silica is carried away by groundwater
– Quartz is very resistant to chemical weathering
4.2 Weathering
Products of Weathering
4.2 Weathering

Chemical Weathering

 Weathering of Silicate Minerals

• Produces insoluble iron oxides and clay minerals

Spheroidal Weathering

• Causes the corners and edges of rock to be

more rounded
The Formation of Rounded Boulders Spheroidal weathering of
extensively jointed rock in California’s Joshua Tree National Park.
4.3 Rate Of Weathering

Rate of Weathering
 Two other factors affecting the rate of weathering
are rock characteristics and climate.

1. Rock characteristics
• Mineral composition and solubility
• Physical features such as joints
Rock Type Influences Weathering
4.3 Rate Of Weathering

Rate of Weathering
2. Climate
• Temperature and moisture are the most crucial
factors.

• Chemical weathering is most effective in areas

with high temperatures and abundant moisture.
Acid Rain Accelerates the Chemical Weathering of Stone
Monuments and Structures
 3000 year old Egyptian
3000 year old Egyptian Obelisk Obelisk after 100 years in NY
4.3 Rate Of Weathering

Rate of Weathering
 Differential Weathering

Masses of rock do not weather uniformly.

• Caused by variations in composition

• Creates unusual and spectacular rock formations

and landforms
Monuments to Weathering
An example of differential weathering in New Mexico’s Bisti Badlands. When
weathering accentuates differences in rocks, spectacular landforms are sometimes
created.
4.4 Soil
An Interface in the Earth System
When Earth is viewed as a system, soil is referred to as an
interface—a common boundary where different parts of a
system interact.

Characteristics of Soil

 Soil is a combination of mineral and organic matter, water,

and air, which is a part of the regolith (rhegos = blanket, lithos
= stone), that supports the growth of plants.

• Regolith is the layer of rock and mineral fragments produced

by weathering that covers most of Earth’s land surface.
What Is Soil? The graph depicts the composition (by volume) of a soil in good
condition for plant growth. Although percentages vary, each soil is composed of
mineral and organic matter, water, and air.
4.4 Soil

Characteristics of Soil
 Soil Composition

• Soil has four major components: mineral matter,

or broken-down rock; humus, which is the
decayed remains of organisms; water; and air.
4.4 Soil

Characteristics of Soil
 Soil Texture
• Texture refers to the proportions of different
particle sizes.
- Sand (large size)
- Silt
- Clay (small size)

• Loam (a mixture of all three sizes) is best

suited for plant life.
Soil-texture Diagram The texture of any soil can be represented by a point on this
diagram. Soil texture is one of the factors used to estimate agricultural potential and
engineering characteristics.
4.4 Soil

Characteristics of Soil
 Soil Structure

• Soil particles clump together to give a soil its structure.

• These clumps are called peds.

Four basic soil structures are recognized:

 platy
prismatic
blocky
spheroidal
4.5 Controls of Soil Formation

 The most important factors in soil formation are

parent material, time, climate, organisms, and
slope.

1. Parent material
• Residual soil—parent material is the bedrock

• Transported soil—parent material has been

carried from elsewhere and deposited
Slopes and Soil Development
4.5 Controls of Soil Formation

Soil Formation

2. Time
• Important in all geologic processes
• The longer a soil has been forming, the thicker
it becomes.
3. Climate
• Greatest effect on soil formation
4.5 Controls of Soil Formation

Soil Formation
4. Plants and animals (Organisms)
• Organisms influence the soil's physical and
chemical properties.
• Furnish organic matter to soil
5. Topography (Slope)
• Angle
- Steep slopes often have poorly developed soils.
- Optimum slope is a flat-to-undulating upland
surface.
4.5 Controls of Soil Formation

Soil Formation

5. Topography (Slope)
• Orientation, or direction the slope is facing,
influences soil formation.
- Soil temperature
- Moisture
4.6 The Soil Profile
The Soil Profile
 Soil varies in composition, texture, structure, and color at
different depths. Soil horizons are zones or layers of soil.
A soil profile is a vertical section through all the soil
horizons.
• The O soil horizon consists largely of organic material.

• The A horizon is largely mineral matter, commonly known as topsoil.

• The E horizon is a light-colored layer that contains little organic material, known
as Zone of eluviation and leaching

• The B horizon is subsoil and contains clay particles washed out from above.

• The C horizon is between B horizon and unaltered parent material.

Soil Horizons
Idealized soil profile from a humid
climate in the middle latitudes.
Mass Wasting
4.9 Mass Wasting: The Work Of Gravity

• Earth’s surface is covered by slopes

• Slopes are unstable
– Gravity causes material to move downslope
– This movement is called mass wasting
• May be slow and imperceptible, or
catastrophic
• Does not require a transporting medium

 The downslope movement of rock, regolith, and soil under

the direct influence of gravity is called mass wasting.
4.10 Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting

Triggers of Mass Wasting

• Gravity is the controlling force
• Other factors overcome inertia to create downslope
motion
– Slope material is gradually weakened
– Slope gets closer and closer to being unstable
until a trigger initiates downslope movement
• Saturation with water
• Oversteepening
• Removal of vegetation
• Earthquakes
4.10 Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting

Triggers of Mass Wasting

• Saturation
– Water in pore space reduces cohesion and allows
particles to slide
– Water adds weight to sediment
• Oversteepening
– Unconsolidated sediment forms a stable slope at a
certain angle of repose depending on the size and
shape of the particles
– Stream undercutting a valley
– Waves undercutting a cliff
– Human activity
Saturation Reduces Friction When water saturates soil, friction among
particles is reduced, allowing soil to move downslope.
Angle of Repose
 Angle of Repose

• The maximum angle at which loose sediment

can form a stable slope
• Different materials will have different angles of
repose
Unstable Slopes
Natural processes such as stream and
wave erosion can oversteepen slopes.
Changing the slope to accommodate a
new house or road can also lead to
instability and a destructive mass-
wasting event.
Natural Oversteepening
4.10 Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting

Triggers of Mass Wasting

• Removal of vegetation root systems that bind sediment

– Forest fires, deforestation, development, farming
• Earthquakes can dislodge rock and unconsolidated material
• Many mass wasting events occur without an identifiable trigger
Wildfires Contribute to Mass Wasting During the summer, wildfires are common
occurrences in many parts of the western United States. Millions of acres are burned
each year. The loss of anchoring vegetation sets the stage for accelerated mass
wasting.
Earthquakes as Triggers
A major earthquake in
China’s mountainous Sichuan
Province in May 2008 triggered
hundreds of landslides. The
landslide shown here took 51
lives.
4.11 Classifying Mass wasting Processes

 Geologists classify mass wasting based on the type of

material that moves, how it moves, and the velocity of
movement.

Type of Motion

Fall (Rockfall) free falling of detached individual pieces of

any size,

Slides, occur whenever material remains fairly coherent

and moves along a well-defined surface.

Flow, occurs when material moves downslope as a

viscous fluid.
4.11 Classifying Mass wasting Processes

Types of Mass Wasting

Rapid Forms of Mass Wasting

 Rockfalls

• A rockfall occurs when rocks or rocks fragments

fall freely through the air.
 ROCK FALLS

Fastest form of mass

wasting
Hundreds of tons of rock
free-falling to surface
4.11 Classifying Mass wasting Processes

Types of Mass Movements

 Slides
• In a slide, a block of material moves suddenly along
a flat, inclined surface.
• Slides that include segments of bedrock are called
rockslides.

 Slumps
• A slump is the downward sliding of a mass of rock or
unconsolidated material moving as a unit along a
curved surface.
 Slump
• Indicators:
– Scarp
– “Hummocky” terrain
on and below
(earthflow)
 Slump
scarp
Slump Animation

• Computer
simulation of a
deep-seated
"slump“ type
landslide in San
Mateo County,
California
• Over 250,000
tons of rock and
soil moved in this
landslide
Slump Failure, McClure Pass, Colorado

• Note half buried automobile

4.11 Classifying Mass wasting Processes

Types of Mass Movements

 Flows
• Flows are mass movements of material containing
a large amount of water.

• Debris flow is relatively rapid flow of soil and regolith

containing a large amount of water. Mudflows when
the material is primarily fine grained.

• Earthflows When water saturates the soil and regolith

on a hillside, the material may break away, leaving a
scar on the slope and forming a tongue- or teardrop-
shaped mass that flows downslope
Four Relatively Rapid Forms of Mass Wasting Because materials in slumps (A) and rockslides
(B) move along well-defined surfaces, they are said to move by sliding. By contrast, when
materials move downslope as a viscous fluid, the movement is described as a flow. Debris flow
(C) and earthflow (D) advance downslope in this manner.
Debris Flow Animation

• Computer simulation
depicting the Sourgrass
debris flow (Sierra Nevada,
North Fork of the Stanislaus
River), of January 1, 1997
Earthflow
4.11 Classifying Mass wasting Processes

Types of Mass Movements

Slow Forms of Mass Wasting

 Creep

• Creep is the gradual and slow downhill movement

of soil and regolith.
Creep The repeated expansion and contraction of the surface material causes a net
downslope migration of soil and rock particles.
Creep
4.11 Classifying Mass wasting Processes

Types of Mass Movements

Slow Forms of Mass Wasting

 Solifluction (Soil flow)

• When soil is saturated with water, the soggy mass

may flow downslope at a rate of a few millimeters or
a few centimeters per day or per year.

Common wherever water cannot escape from the

saturated surface layer by infiltrating to deeper levels.
Solifluction Lobes Near the Arctic Circle in Alaska Solifluction occurs in
permafrost regions when the active layer thaws in summer.
Mass Wasting Animation
Assignment # 4

Earth Science

EXAMINING THE EARTH SYSTEM on Page 148

Q1, Q2, Q4 and Q5