LESSON 3: INTERDEPENDENT

RELATIONSHIPS IN ECOSYSTEMS
Ecology is all about existing interactions between biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors
and how this interaction influences or affects the distribution and abundance of living organisms.
The physical space, the resources that a living thing utilize, and the presence of interaction with
other organisms constitute to the niche that an organism occupies in its lifetime. Different
populations can be found interacting in a particular ecosystem because the niches of these
organisms overlap with one another. Thus, overlapping niches create different types of
relationships at the same time. (Nguyen, 2020). You will notice that in these relationships,
organisms themselves either cooperate or compete in order to maintain balance of nature in the
environment.
The Law of Interrelatedness states that “we are all together”. Living things or biotic factors
depend
on each other’s role for survival, which is essential in order for all ecosystems to sustain its
stability. This in return promotes sustainability in keeping different populations of organisms to
thrive, adapt and survive throughout its lifetime.

Symbiosis: The Art of Living

Together
Symbiosis is a term describing any relationship or interaction between
two dissimilar organisms. The specific kind of symbiosis depends on
whether either or both organisms benefit from the relationship.

Planet Earth is inhabited by millions of species—at least! Because

different species often inhabit the same spaces and share—or
compete for—the same resources, they interact in a variety of ways,
known collectively as symbiosis. There are four
main symbiotic relationships: mutualism, commensalism, parasitism,
and competition.
1. Mutualism.
Mutualisms are defined as interactions between organisms of two different
species, in which each organism benefits from the interaction in some way.
These types of interaction are common and ubiquitous throughout all
ecosystems, and scientists are increasingly recognizing the important role that
they play in ecology.
Mutualisms may involve either the exchange of resources, such as shelter, food
and other nutrients, or they may involve the exchange of services, such as
protection, transportation or healthcare.

Sometimes mutualisms are symbiotic relationships. In such cases, the two

species live in close proximity to each other for part or all of their lives; however,
not all symbiotic relationships are mutualistic.

If the mutualism is vital for the growth, survival or reproduction of an organism,

it is obligate; this is the case in many symbioses. If the mutualism benefits an
organism, but the organism is not so dependent on the mutualism that it cannot
survive without it, this is called a facultative mutualism.

Mutualisms may also be species specific or diffuse. In specific interactions, each

species only has a mutualism exclusively with the other, whereas diffuse
interactions involve multiple interactions between many different species.

The concept of a mutualism is in contrast to interspecific competition, which

occurs when organisms from different species compete for a resource, resulting
in reduced fitness for one of the individuals or populations involved while the
other benefits.

Examples of Mutualisms
Cleaning Mutualisms

A mutualism in which one mutualistic partner removes parasites, as well as dead

or diseased skin from another, in return receiving a steady supply of food, is
called a cleaning mutualism.
One of the most notable cleaning mutualisms is the relationship between the
genus of wrasse fish Labroides and their many ‘clients’. The wrasse is a small
fish, with striking lines of bright coloration along its body. They reside within
areas of tropical reefs, which are known as ‘cleaning stations’, advertising their
services by performing a ‘dance’ (they make quick movements up and down,
undulating their bodies in the water).

Throughout their lives, many species of fish become infected by ectoparasites,

which spawn in open water and attach themselves to the skin and other glands
of fish in order to feed on the host’s blood; these parasites are mostly benign
and probably just cause an irritation. However, they also pose a risk to fish
through the transmission of disease. To rid themselves of the parasites, the fish
visit the cleaning stations, and allow the wrasse to move up and down their
bodies (even inside their mouths), searching for and eating the ectoparasites.
Although the cleaner fish put themselves into apparent danger by swimming so
close to larger predators, the benefits of the cleaning service to the client
outweighs the benefits of eating the cleaner, and the cleaners are almost never
harmed; most cleaner fish even have a clientele of repeat customers!
The image above shows a cleaner wrasse (Labroides Phthirophagus) searching
for parasites on the body of a White-Spotted Puffer fish ( Arothron hispidus).

Terrestrial examples of cleaning mutualisms can be seen in several species.

Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), large rodents native to Brazil, have ticks,
horseflies and other parasites removed by a range of different birds, for
example, the shiny cowbird (Molothrus Bonariensis), the yellow-headed caracara
(Milvago chimachima) and the Wattled Jacana (Jacana jacana). The red-billed
oxpecker bird (Buphagus erythrorhynchus) eats ticks from many species of large
mammal such as cattle, deer and rhinoceros. As well as receiving the benefit of
parasite removal, the red-billed oxpecker alerts its host to danger, by flying high
in the sky and making loud noises.

Cleaning mutualisms are generally diffuse relationships, as the interactions are

not entirely species specific, with many different cleaners specializing in one
client, or many clients using the services from one species of cleaner.

Pollination

Nearly all pollination services involve a mutualism that has evolved over millions
of years. This kind of mutualism involves a resource for services interaction.
Bees, birds, moths, butterflies and other pollinators visit flowers because they
contain nectar, a sweet food source that is secreted by the flower.

Once a pollinator arrives at the plant, it must make contact with the flower in
order to obtain the nectar. During this contact, pollen grains stick on to the body
and legs of the pollinator. The pollinator then flies away to feed from the next
plant, taking the pollen with it. Subsequent visits to other plants ensure that the
pollen from the first plant is distributed far away.
Many species of pollinator have highly specialized relationships with their host
plant. Plants have evolved specific morphologies to ensure that the pollen is only
transferred to other members of its species; this is called a pollination syndrome.
The pollinators, in turn, have to adapt to this pollination syndrome, a process
which drives the changes in morphologies and species diversification even more.
Often, this involves the evolution of very long, thin tubes, which hold the nectar,
resulting in the evolution of pollinators with long tongues or beaks, so that the
nectar store can be accessed. However, pollen syndromes can be seen in all
flowers, as their bright coloration is an evolved trait, designed to attract certain
pollinators.

Reproduction

An example of a highly specialized, obligate mutualistic symbiosis is the

interaction between the fig wasp and fig trees; the life cycles of both depend on
the other. The queen fig wasp enters the fig (inside is a cluster of flowers and
seeds) via an opening in the base of the fig called the ostiole, losing her wings
and antennae in the process. Once inside the fig, the wasp lays her eggs and
simultaneously deposits the pollen, which she carried from another fig; in doing
so, she fertilizes the fig’s ovaries.

Once she has laid her eggs, the queen dies and her body is digested, providing
nourishment for the fig. Once the eggs hatch, the males and females mate with
each other. The females begin to collect pollen, while the males start to dig
through the flesh of the fig to the exterior, creating an exit route for the females.
The females leave the fig, and travel to another tree, carrying with them the
pollen, which begins the reproduction cycle for both fig and fig wasp all over
again.
To explore these relationships, let’s consider a natural ecosystem
such as the ocean. Oceanic environments are known for their species
diversity. Imagine you are on a diving expedition to explore the worlds
beneath the waves. If we were in the warm waters of the Pacific or
Indian Oceans, we’d likely spot an excellent example of mutualism:
the relationship between clownfish and sea anemones. In a
mutualistic relationship, both species benefit. Sea anemones live
attached to the surface of coral reefs. They trap their prey with
stinging cells called nematocysts, which are located on their tentacles.
Nematocysts release toxins when a small animal contacts an
anemone’s tentacle. This paralyzes the stung animal, allowing the
anemone to easily bring the animal into its mouth for ingestion.

While other fish succumb to these toxic stings, clownfish secrete a

substance in the mucus covering their bodies that suppresses the
firing of nematocysts. This allows the clownfish to swim comfortably
between the tentacles of anemones, creating a protected environment
in which potential predators are killed off by anemone stings. This
clearly benefits the clownfish, but how about the sea anemones? The
brightly colored clownfish attract other fish looking for a meal. These
unsuspecting would-be predators are then caught and eaten by the
anemones.
Living things involved in this relationship benefit mutually from one another
and neither is harmed during interaction. The relationship provides these general purposes:
for obtaining food and energy, and for protection. Other examples:

A. Egyptian plover birds pick up and eat leeches on mouths of crocodiles. These birds
help in cleaning their teeth as the crocs open their mouth wide and receive a good oral
prophylaxis treat. Herodotos noticed this relationship in Egypt.
B. Birds such as oxpeckers pick up and eat the ticks hiding on the skin surfaces of
grazing animals like zebras.
C. Crabs carry on their backs poisonous sea urchins for protection and as weapons
while the urchins get a good free ride under the sea.
D. Grey wolves use the good sense of smell of striped hyenas when hunting for food.
Hyenas benefit from the good hunting skills of wolves on the other hand.
E. Clown fish gets protection from sea anemones against predators while its waste
serves as nutrients for the anemone in return.

2. Commensalism.
What is commensalism? Literally, commensalism is a Latin word that means ‘to eat at the same
table’. In biology, commensalism is a unique relationship between two species wherein
one species draws food, shelter, or transport from the other without harming it. The interaction
duration between two species varies from short to long. It is a kind of symbiotic relationship;
however, one of the partners is neither benefited nor harmed. The partner that draws the benefit
is known as a commensal while the other one is known as the host species. The word
‘commensalism’ was first described by the zoologist and palaeontologist Pierre-Joseph van
Beneden who used this term to describe the behavior of scavengers to follow predators to feed
upon the remains of dead animals.

Now let’s have some commensalism relationship examples. The simplest example of
commensalism is a bird making a nest in a tree. The tree provides shelter and protection to the
bird without getting significantly harmed or affected by the bird. Another typical example is the
cattle egrets (birds) that feed upon the insects stirred up by the feeding cattle. Cattle egrets get
their food without disturbing the cattle.

Figure 1: Example of commensalism Castle egrets on feeding cattle. Image

source: Protonstalk.com
Orchids and ferns are epiphytes that grow on other plants. The canopy of high plants helps these
epiphytes grow by supporting epiphytes in many ways. Epiphytes not only get support from
these plants, but epiphytes also get exposure to sunlight and pollinators. However, they don’t
draw food from the host plant, and hence the host plant remains unaffected by the orchids and
ferns. However, orchids and ferns get the much-required support from the host plant.
Commensalism examples are found in every region of the world. We have seen plenty of
examples of commensalism in the ocean. Let’s study some examples from other geographical
regions of the world. Commensalism in the tundra is exhibited by caribou and the arctic fox
relationship. Caribou exposes the lichen plant by digging them up. Reindeers get attracted to
these lichens. Arctic foxes follow the caribou pathway and reach the reindeers feeding upon the
exposed lichens.

Commensalism in savanna is exemplified by sub-Saharan African creature Oxpeckers and the

grazing animals like giraffes, buffaloes, impalas, etc. Oxpeckers feed upon the flies, ticks, and
insects found on the grazing animals. Oxpeckers thus feed upon these insects, flies, and ticks,
keeping the animals clean.

Additionally, oxpeckers provide an alarm to the grazing animal if any predator is nearby or
approaching the herd of the grazing animals. Thus, Oxpeckers and grazing animals exhibit a
commensalism symbiotic relationship.

Similarly, golden jackals follow the tiger trail in order to feed upon the remains of the dead prey
of the tiger. The tiger remains unaffected by the behavior of the jackal while the jackal gets easy
access to the food.

Frogs from the family Dendrobatidae, known as Poison dart frogs found in the tropical regions of
South and Central America, exhibit commensalism with leaves of large plants. These frogs take
shelter under large leaves and protect themselves from predators.

Here, one organism is benefited in the relationship and the other is neither helped nor harmed.
Examples:
A. Bacteria producing chemical for the benefit of another bacteria.
B. Barnacles become mobile and can get protection from predators as they grow on
whales and on other marine animals. They can also feed as whales transfer from certain
places under the sea.
C. The hollows of trees become shelter and give protection to birds.
D. Cattle egrets get food whenever cattle stir up and disturb insects as they move while
grazing on fields.
E. Some species of orchids and ferns grow on another plant or trees for support.
3. Parasitism.
Parasitism is a kind of symbiosis in which one organism (referred to as the parasite) benefits at
the expense of another organism (referred to as the host); the interaction may also cause harm to
the host.

What is a parasite? A parasite is a creature that lives on or in the host and obtains its sustenance
from or at the cost of the host.

Parasites are commonly associated with what food in human environments? Parasites like to live
in the host’s partly digested food. They are usually connected with seafood, wild wildlife, and
foodstuff that has been treated with polluted water. This is because parasites and parasites’ eggs
can survive intense conditions.
One organism, called parasite benefits in this relationship while the other,
which is the host is actually harmed. Examples:
A. Endoparasites such as intestinal worms living inside the digestive tract of animals
obtain nutrients from them throughout their lifetime. During infestation, organisms suffer
and may get sick from these parasites.
B. Ectoparasites like lice, ticks, and fleas feed on their host as they attach and live on
the surface of their hosts. Human lice cause itching and discomfort on scalp of their hosts.

During reproduction, all parasitic worms lay eggs. These eggs have a tough shell that protects
them from a variety of environmental factors. The eggs could survive in the environment for
months or years without the eggs hatching prematurely.

There are different types of parasites plants (parasitic plants) and parasites animals and they all
participate in the symbiosis called parasitism. What is parasitism? What does parasitism mean?

Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which one organism, the parasite, causes harm to
another, the host, on whom the parasite relies for habitat and resource acquisition. Parasitic
relationship examples include humans, plants, insects, and fish parasites.

Here are some parasitism facts:

 Parasitism, like predation, is a kind of consumer-resource interaction, but unlike

predators, parasites, except for parasitoids, are normally considerably smaller than their
hosts, do not kill their hosts, and often remain in or on them for a lengthy period.
 Animal parasites are highly specialized and proliferate quicker than their hosts.
Interactions between vertebrate hosts and Plasmodium, flukes, tapeworm species, and
fleas are typical examples.
 Parasites lower host fitness by general or specialized parasitic disease, ranging from
parasite castration to host behavior change. Parasites improve their fitness by utilizing
hosts for resources essential for survival, namely by feeding on them and employing
intermediate hosts to aid in transmission from one definitive host tissue to another.