Parasitism

Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism benefits and the other organism is harmed, but
not always killed. The organism that benefits is called the parasite, and the one that is harmed is
the host. Parasitism is different from parasitoidism, which is when the host is always killed, such
as when one organism lays its egg inside another organism that is later eaten by the hatchlings.
Parasites can be ectoparasites -- such as ticks, fleas, and leeches -- that live on the surface of the
host. Parasites can also be endoparasites -- such as intestinal worms – that live inside the host.
Endoparasites can be further categorized into intercellular parasites, that live in the space
between cells, or intracellular parasites, which live inside of cells. There is also something called
hyperparasitism, which is when a parasite is infected by another parasite, such as a
microorganism living in a flea, which lives on a dog. Lastly, a relationship called social
parasitism is exemplified by an ant species that does not have worker ants, living among another
ant species that do, by using the host species’ workers.

Predation: One Wins, One Loses

Predation includes any interaction between two species in which one species benefits by
obtaining resources from and to the detriment of the other. While it's most often associated with
the classic predator-prey interaction, in which one species kills and consumes another, not all
predation interactions result in the death of one organism. In the case of herbivory, a herbivore
often consumes only part of the plant. While this action may result in injury to the plant, it may
also result in seed dispersal. Many ecologists include parasitic interactions in discussions of
predation. In such relationships, the parasite causes harm to the host over time, possibly even
death. As an example, parasitic tapeworms attach themselves to the intestinal lining of dogs,
humans and other mammals, consuming partially digested food and depriving the host of
nutrients, thus lowering the host's fitness.
Competition: The Double Negative
Competition exists when multiple organisms vie for the same, limiting resource. Because the use
of a limited resource by one species decreases availability to the other, competition lowers the
fitness of both. Competition can be interspecific, between different species, or intraspecific,
between individuals of the same species. In the 1930s, Russian ecologist Georgy Gause proposed
that two species competing for the same limiting resource cannot coexist in the same place at the
same time. As a consequence, one species may be driven to extinction, or evolution reduces the
competition.
When organisms compete for a resource (such as food or building materials) it is called
consumptive or exploitative competition. When they compete for territory, it is called
interference competition. When they compete for new territory by arriving there first, it is called
preemptive competition. An example is lions and hyenas that compete for prey.

Mutualism: Everyone Wins

Mutualism describes an interaction that benefits both species. A well-known example exists in
the mutualistic relationship between alga and fungus that form lichens. The photsynthesizing
alga supplies the fungus with nutrients, and gains protection in return. The relationship also
allows lichen to colonize habitats inhospitable to either organism alone. In rare case, mutualistic
partners cheat. Some bees and birds receive food rewards without providing pollination services
in exchange. These "nectar robbers" chew a hole at the base of the flower and miss contact with
the reproductive structures.
Mutualistic interaction patterns occur in three forms. Obligate mutualism is when one species
cannot survive apart from the other. Diffusive mutualism is when one organism can live with
more than one partner. Facultative mutualism is when one species can survive on its own under
certain conditions. On top of these, mutualistic relationships have three general purposes.
Trophic mutualism is exemplified in lichens, which consist of fungi and either algae or
cyanobacteria. The fungi's partners provide sugar from photosynthesis and the fungi provide
nutrients from digesting rock. Defensive mutualism is when one organism provides protection
from predators while the other provides food or shelter: an example is ants and aphids.
Dispersive mutualism is when one species receives food in return for transporting the pollen of
the other organism, which occurs between bees and flowers.
Commensalism: A Positive/Zero Interaction
An interaction where one species benefits and the other remains unaffected is known as
commensalism. As an example, cattle egrets and brown-headed cowbirds forage in close
association with cattle and horses, feeding on insects flushed by the movement of the livestock.
The birds benefit from this relationship, but the livestock generally do not. Often it's difficult to
tease apart commensalism and mutualism. For example, if the egret or cowbird feeds on ticks or
other pests off of the animal's back, the relationship is more aptly described as mutualistic.
Another example is when an orchid is growing as an epiphyte on a mango tree gets shelter and
nutrition from mango tree, while the mango tree is neither benefitted nor harmed.
Examples are barnacles that grow on whales and other marine animals. The whale gains no
benefit from the barnacle, but the barnacles gain mobility, which helps them evade predators,
and are exposed to more diverse feeding opportunities. There are four basic types of commensal
relationships. Chemical commensalism occurs when one bacteria produces a chemical that
sustains another bacteria. Inquilinism is when one organism lives in the nest, burrow, or
dwelling place of another species. Metabiosis is commensalism in which one species is
dependent on the other for survival. Phoresy is when one organism temporarily attaches to
another organism for the purposes of transportation.

Amensalism: A Negative/Zero Interaction

Amensalism describes an interaction in which the presence of one species has a negative effect
on another, but the first species is unaffected. For example, a herd of elephants walking across a
landscape may crush fragile plants. Amensalistic interactions commonly result when one species
produces a chemical compound that is harmful to another species. The chemical ‘juglone’
produced in the roots of black walnut inhibit the growth of other trees and shrubs, but has no
effect on the walnut tree.
Penicillium is a group of common mould species, many of which produce antibiotics (such as
penicillin). These antibiotics kill certain types of bacteria. The antibiotics produced by the
moulds are simply a waste product, produced during their metabolism (as they break down their
food). While the waste product kills bacteria, the penicillium are unaffected.