1.

INTRODUCTION

The low cost technology reduces the cost of construction without affecting the quality.
Cost effective technology is a collection of methods or strategies that use innovative
materials and techniques to construct building at a cost less than a cost of current methods
of construction. Cord wood construction not only lessens the cost of construction but also
enhances the aesthetic beauty. As long as the footings are sound and the woods are treated
properly, there is sufficient overhang on the roof to prevent the rainwater from running
down the walls, it could be expected that the structure to last at least 150 years. Cordwood
homes are attractive for their visual appeal, maximization of interior space, economy of
resources and ease of construction. Wood usually accounts for about 40%-60% of the
wall system, the remaining portion consisting of a mortar mix and insulating fill.
Cordwood walls can be load-bearing (using built-up corners, or curved wall designed) or
laid within a post and beam framework which provides structural reinforcement and is
suitable for earthquake-prone areas. As a load-bearing wall, the compressive strength of
wood and mortar allows for roofing to be tied directly into the wall. Different mortar
mixtures and insulation fill material both affect the wall's overall R value, or resistance to
heat flow; and conversely, to its inherent thermal mass, or heat/cool storage capacity.

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 2. HISTORY

Remains of cordwood structures still standing date back as far as one thousand
years in eastern Germany. However, more contemporary versions could be found
in Europe, Asia, and the Americas. There is no detailed information about the origins of
cordwood construction. However, it is plausible that forest dwellers eventually erected a
basic shelter between a fire and a stacked wood pile. In the work of William Tischler of
University of Wisconsin, he states that "current" cordwood probably started in the
late 1800s (decade) in Quebec, Wisconsin, and Sweden. He believes that the technique
started in these areas around the same time.

2.1 THE AGATE HOUSE

The Agate House and is located at the Petrified Forest National Park in NE Arizona. The
petrified wood is 200 million years old and the trees grew hundreds of feet tall. They have
petrified over time into very colorful agate. Archeological research indicated they used
petrified wood and clay. Ancestral Puebloan people used petrified wood for a variety of
purposes including tools such as projectile points, knives, and scrapers. Agate House
demonstrates another innovative use petrified wood of: as a building material.

Fig.2.1 The Agate House

The eight-room pueblo was built and occupied sometime between 1050 and 1300 in a
location near agricultural fields and petrified wood deposits. Agate House now stands
alone on top of a small hill in Rainbow Forest, but it was likely part of a much larger

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community. Since its excavation in the 1930s, hundreds of similar petrified wood
structure sites have been found in the park. Many date to the same time period (Pueblo II-
Pueblo III). Though built using original materials, the 1930s reconstruction is not a
completely accurate replication of the original structure. Still it enables us to envision the
daily lives of people that called it home.The petrified wood is beautiful. I guess it can be
called cordwood even if the wood is 200 million years old.

Fig.2.2. Petrified Wood in Agate House

2.2 THAT ROUND HOUSE

Fig. 2.3 That Round House

That Roundhouse is a roundhouse sited in woods within the town of Newport in Wales. It
was constructed without planning permission during the winter of 1997/1998 by Tony
Wrench and Jane Faith and helpers as part of the then secret Brithdir Mawr intentional

3
community. The structure was discovered in 1998, challenged by the authorities, and
threatened with demolition; it was granted retrospective planning permission in
September 2008, with a review in three years. The “radical experiment” has attracted
considerable media attention in relation to issues surrounding green building, affordable
housing, low-carbon building, low-impact development and sustainable living.

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 3. CONSTRUCTION

Walls are usually constructed so that the log ends protrude from the mortar by a small
amount (an inch or less). Walls typically range between 8 and 24 inches thick, though in
northern Canada, some walls are as much as 36 inches thick. Cordwood homes are
attractive for their visual appeal, maximization of interior space (with a rounded plan),
economy of resources, and ease of construction. Wood usually accounts for about 40-60%
of the wall system, the remaining portion consisting of a mortar mix and insulating fill.
Cordwood construction can be sustainable depending on design and process. There are
two main types of cordwood construction, Throughwall and M-I-M (mortar-insulation-
mortar).

Fig.3.1 Construction of Wall

3.1. PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION

The process of cordwood construction is as follows, Before construction the soil

conditions on the site must be verified to support heavy cordwood masonry walls. The
timber which is cut down, the bark should be removed in the spring with a shovel, chisel,
or bark spud. The sap is still running in spring time and provides a lubricating layer
of cambium between the bark and wood, making separation an easier task than if left until
the fall when the two layers are well-bonded together. Once debarked, the logs should sit
to dry for at least three summers to limit splitting and checking. It is important to cut the

5
logs, once debarked to the chosen building length.One of a report suggest splitting 70% of
the wood for better drying and seasoning.

After drying, the logs must be cut to the desired length (usually 8, 12, 16, 18, or 24 in.). In
this case a metal handsaw is preferable to a chainsaw because its finer cut helps to ward
moisture and pest penetration.[citation needed] Actually a "cut off " saw or "buzz saw" will
make quick work of cutting cordwood into chosen lengths. For especially furry ends like
on cedar, rasps can be used for smoothing.

The wood then needs to be transported to the building site. It is convenient to have the
source of cordwood and construction site nearby. Once a proper foundation has been
poured which rises 12-24 inches above ground level with a splash guard, construction of
the walls can begin. Temporary shelters can be used to cover the worksite and cordwood
from rain. A post and beam frame supplies this shelter for subsequent cordwood
mortaring.

As we discussed there is two types of cordwood construction which are

M-I-M & Through wall.

3.1.1. M-I-M

M-I-M is one of the commonly used method for cordwood construction. Two parallel 3 to
4 +inch beads of mortar are laid down along the foundation,followed by a middle filling
of insulation material. Then logs are laid on top with consistent mortar gaps, protruding
no more than 1 inch on the inside and outside of the wall. Actual placement will depend
on the size and shapes of the logs. Another layer of mortar is spread, then insulation
poured in between, more logs follow and so on.

3.1.2. Through Wall

Construction of cordwood by Through wall method a thin, even layer of insulative mortar
is laid along the foundation, then the logs are seated firmly in the mortar bed, in an even
fashion, leaving only enough space between them to "point" the mortar. The mortar gaps
are filled to make a relatively flat top surface, then another thin layer of mortar is added
and the process repeats. The shape and exterior orientation of logs is important only for
appearance. Pre-split “firewood style” logs check less when in the wall and are easier

6
to point or smooth and press evenly around than round pieces because the mortar gaps are
generally smaller.

3.2. WOOD

Cordwood construction is an economical use of log ends or fallen trees in heavily

timbered areas. Other common sources for wood include sawmills, split firewood, utility
poles (without creosote), split rail fence posts, and logging slash. It is more sustainable
and often economical to use recycled materials for the walls. Regardless of the source, all
wood must be debarked before the construction begins. While many different types of
wood can be used, the most desirable rot resistant woods are Pacific yew, bald
cypress (new growth), cedars, and juniper. Acceptable woods also include Douglas
fir, western larch, Eastern White Pine, and Spruce Pine.

Less dense and more airy woods are superior because they shrink and expand in lower
proportions than dense hardwoods.

Most wood can be used in a wall if it is dried properly and stabilized to the external
climate's relative humidity. Furthermore, while log ends of different species can be mixed
in a wall, log-ends of identical species and source limit expansion/contraction variables.
After drying, the logs must be cut to the desired length (usually 8-24 inches). In this case
a metal handsaw is preferable to a chainsaw because its finer cut helps to ward moisture
and pest penetration.

3.2.1 Types of Woods

Soft wood: Cedar and pine which has low density are the best.Cedar is rot resistant ,
smells good, lightweight, and has a pleasing smell

Hard Wood: Woods like oak and maple are the best, since they are heavier, more
compact, and swell when subjected to water / humidity

3.2.2 Problems Faced By Other Woods As Construction Material

When other wood is used instead of the above defined woods in this construction, proper
care should be taken. Since there is chances for pest attack, weather, type of wood,

7
amount of moisture present in the wood e.t.c. The major issue faced in this construction
shrinkage of wood.

3.2.2.1 Shrinkage of Wood

Shrinking and swelling occur as the wood changes moisture content in response to daily
as well as seasonal changes in the relative humidity of the atmosphere. Wood will shrink
as it loses moisture in its inactive cell walls to the drier humidity of its environment. The
shrinking or swelling can result in the loosening, checking, splitting and warping of
wood. It is important to understand this to avoid defects in seasonal projects.

Fig.3.2 Shrinkaged Wood

3.2.2.2 Decay of Wood

Wood decay (rot) is caused by a biological attack within the wood by certain species of
fungi. The fungus can lie dormant in the wood for years until the right conditions present
themselves. The conditions needed are oxygen, moisture and nutrients, with moisture
being the critical component.

3.2.3. Treatment of Wood

There are mainly two types of treating of wood for cordwood construction they are.

-Air drying

-Borax treatment

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3.2.3.1 Air Drying

The first rule of air drying wood for cordwood is to get it in the sun. In a single row,
covered on top. Then make sure it is covered on the tippy top. We can speed up th drying
by , splitting 70% of the wood. Split wood dries faster. we can hook up a powerful fan to
blow on the rows of wood-moving the fan daily-you can help dry the wood even more

Fig.3.3 Logs Punched Out Of Wall

This is the result when the wood is not dried to its lowest equilibrium moisture content.
The logs would be punched out of the wall.

3.2.3.2 Borax Treatment

A borax/borate dunk is also a good way to rid the wood of mildew, fungus, and bugs.
Borax is a wood preservative, a fungicide, an insect repellant, and a fire retardant. Mix 4
cups of Borax (like 20 Mule Team Borax Laundry Detergent) with a gallon of hot/hot/hot
water and dunk the log ends into the bucket/tank for a minute or two.Then stack them to
dry. The bottom line is you are working to get the wood to its Equilibrium Moisture
Content (that's 12% in the upper Midwest, 7% in the desert).

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 Fig.3.4 Making Of Borax And Hot Water Solution

Fig.3.5 Dunking Of Wood In The Solution

We should also get a moisture meter to check the sides and the end to make sure it is dry
enough to mortar into your wall. If it is not dry enough it will shrink in the wall and create
air infiltration gaps. One way to keep the round "look" and not have the primary check or
log loosening problem is to "explode" the round logs (split them) and then put them back
together in the wall

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3.3. MORTAR

As we all know about mortar, Mortar is the constituent material which holds the bricks,
woods in this construction e.t.c mortar, in other ways the technology of, material used in
building construction to bond brick, stone, tile, or concrete blocks into a structure. Mortar
hardens into a stone like mass and, properly applied, distributes the load of the structure
uniformly over the bonding surfaces and provides a weathertight joint.

In through wall the mortar mix itself contains insulative materials, usually saw dust,
chopped news print, or paper sludge, in sometimes very high percentages by mass (80%
paper sludge/20% mortar).

In the more common M-I-M, and unlike brick or through wall masonry, the mortar does
not continue throughout the wall. Instead, three or four inch (sometimes more) beads of
mortar on each side of the wall provide stability and support, with a separate insulation
between them

Fig.3.6 Mixing of Materials For Mortar

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3.3.1 Proportion of Mortar

The proportion of the mortar used in the cordwood construction is two types,

PROPORTION 3:2:1:1

In this proportion the 3 represents sand,2 is saw dust,1 is Portland cement and hydrated
lime. This proportion is intended to have the advantage of curing slower and displays less
cracking

PROPORTION 9:3:3

2This one of a proportion which was successful since 1981. This proportion consists of 9
parts sand,3 parts sawdust, 3 parts builder’s lime, 2 parts Portland cement. The builder’s
lime in this proportion makes the wall more flexible, breathable and self - healing because
it takes longer to completely set than cement.

Fig.3.7 Cracks Formed Due To Rich Mortar

The mortar mix is too rich in Portland cement, it needs more sawdust to make it weaker
(weaker being a good thing in terms of wood masonry). It was also mortared in the hot
sun, which dried it out too fast. It was not covered after the workday to slow down the set
and cure.

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3.4. MATERIALS USED OTHER THAN WOOD

Another material which we use in cordwood construction is bottles. Not an ordinary

bottle butt glass bottles

Fig.3.8. Bottles in Cordwood Construction

Fig.3.9 Bottles Placed On Wall

We can make bottle bricks by simply placing two bottles together and taping them. Or
you can cut each bottle and tape them together.The finished bottle ends are being pricked
with a map pin to allow moisture to transpire. Dozens of bottle ends ready to provide a
spot of light in the wall. We have found that that aluminium flashing needs to go to
within an inch or two of the end on each side for maximum light transfer. it is important

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to start collecting a large number of bottles and vases ahead of time.The glass must
be clean and dry. It helps if the labels are removed. There needs to be an ample amount
of clear and colored glass to brighten your walls. If we are building a thin wall (8 inches)
we may need to cut the glass. we can use a tile cutter or a homemade bottle cutter.

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 4. THERMAL MASS AND INSULATION

As wood is a bio material chances of having pest attack and fungi attack is very high so
proper insulation and care should be taken when dealing with it, Based on some factors
like wall thickness, type of wood, particular mortar recipe, The Insulative value of
cordwood wall is expressed in R-Value. R-value is generally less than that of a high
efficiency stud wall.

Compared to other walls the cordwood wall has greater thermal mass than stud frame but
less than common brick and mortar. This is because of the specific heat capacity of clay
brick is higher and is denser than airy woods like cedar, cypress, pine. The insulated
mortar matrix utilized in most cordwood walls helps in useful thermal mass on both the
sides of the walls of the internal cavity which helps to store heat in winter and cool in
summer.

To maintain the median interior temperature while going through the daily hot and cold
phase thermal mass makes it easier for building. In the desert climate with which have
broad daily temperature swings thermal mass will absorb and then they slowly release the
midday heat and at the night cool in sequence, moderating temperature fluctuations.
Thermal mass does not replace the function of insulation material, but is used in
conjunction with it.

If the logs are long and thicker the walls, better the insulation qualities will be. A
common 16” inch cordwood wall for moderate climates comprises 6 inch that is 150mm
of perlite or vermiculite insulation between mortar joints.

Another insulation option used for over 40 years is by using dry sawdust passed through a
half-inch screen and treated with builder’s lime at the ratio of 12 of saw dust to 1 part of
lime. With light airy sawdust, this insulation is similar in R-Value to manufactured loose -
fill insulation at a fraction of cost.

wood is an anisotropic material with respect to heat flow. That means its thermal
resistance depends on the direction of heat flow relative to the wood grain. While wood
has a commonly quoted R-value of about 1.25 per inch (depending on the species and
moisture content), that only applies if the heat flow is perpendicular to the grain, such as
occurs in common wood frame construction. With cordwood/ stackwall construction, the

15
direction of heat flow is parallel to the grain. For this configuration, the R-value is only
about 40% of that perpendicular to the grain. Thus, the actual R-value of wood, when
used in cordwood/ stackwall construction is closer to about 0.50 per inch.

The R-value of a cordwood masonry wall must take into consideration by both the
wooden portion and the insulated mortar portion as a combined system. The only
authoritative testing on the R-value of cordwood masonry was conducted by Dr. Kris J.
Dick (PE) and Luke Chaput during the winter of 2004-2005, based on thermal sensors
placed within a 24 – inch thick wall. A paper reporting on their findings appears
in Cordwood and the Code: a building permit guide. The authors' summary says, in part:
"Based on approximately three months of mid-winter temperature data, the wall was
determined to have an RSI Value of 6.23 (m²K/W), R-35 for a 24-inch wall system

Cordwood walls are not the best natural insulators but can be built to thermal efficient
standards. The R value of a cordwood wall is directly related to its ratio of wood to
mortar and insulation medium. However, R value in cordwood construction is not as
significant as it is in stick-frame building due to the high thermal mass which increases a
significantly higher "effective R-value.” Builders tailor their design and ratios to the
existing climate.

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 5. SUSTAINABILITY

Although cordwood homes have been tested in -40F locations like Alberta, their thermal
efficiency in any climate is below that of a purely cob house of comparable
dimensions.[1] In frigid areas it is appropriate to either build a thicker 24-36 inch wall, or
two separate super insulated walls. In predominantly wet areas, the outside walls can be
plastered, smothering the cordwood ends from air and moisture, but this hides cordwood's
attractive log ends and the logs will rot. The quantity of labor relative to gaining a
specific R value for cordwood is higher when compared to straw bale and stick frame
construction. Funds saved in construction may need to be allocated for heating costs or
long term exterior maintenance. An organic, mortar-like cob creates less of an
environmental impact because of the use of readily available mud and straw, whereas
toxins emitted during the production of Portland cement are very harmful, albeit less
tangible in the final product. Like many alternative building styles, the sustainability of
cordwood construction is dependent upon materials and construction variables. To sustain
the construction proper check has to carried out.

Fig.5.1 Primary Check

These are while cedar round logs in a cordwood wall. Each has developed a primary
check. The check runs all the way through from the outside to the inside. This lets air
flow into the house. In this picture, the check is being stuffed with white fiberglass to
match the mortar color. You can use brown paper bags, newspaper, caulk (it has to be a
moveable caulk or it will CRACK) or any type of material that looks decent. The check

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needs to be filled on the outside and the inside. When a wall has mostly all splits and
they are well dried, there is usually very little log loosening, air infiltration or primary
Checking

Fig.5.2 Completed Cordwood Construction

Fig.5.3 Determination Of Moisture Content

It is important to check the moisture of your wood using a moisture meter.

After all these checks there would be excess mortar at the edges of the wood on the walls
should be removed.

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 6. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF CORDWOOD

6.1 ADVANTAGES

 Woods in smaller size and larger in size could be used in construction.

 The thermal mass of chinking on inside.
 Relatievely well insulated.
 Carbon sequestration
 Cost effective
 Green building

6.2. DISADVANTAGES

 Movement of wood can cause cracks and crumbling.

 End grain of wood is exposed so chances of getting pest attack and fungi is
relatievely high
 Extremely labour intensive.
 Lots of wood-mortar interface
 Need skilled labours
 The constituent materials of mortar should be in right proportion.

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 11. CONCLUSION

The results found in this study are very promising. It is concluded that cordwood
construction can be regarded as a potential addition to construction method of new type of
construction which can be load-bearing , provides structural reinforcement and is suitable
for earthquake-prone areas. As a load-bearing wall, the compressive strength of wood and
mortar allows for roofing to be tied directly into the wall, and also last for over 150 years
which provides aesthetic beauty, low cost housing, green building, low carbon emission
e.t.c.

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 REFERENCES

1. Roy, Rob (2018), Essential Cordwood Building: the complete step-by-step

guide, New Society Publishers: Gabriola Island, BC, Canada

2. Roy, Rob (2016) Cordwood Building: A Comprehensive Guide to the State of

the Art, New Society Publishers: Gabriola Island, BC, Canada

3. Flatau, Richard (2012) Cordwood Construction: Best Practice

4. Gregoire, R. (1983), The thermal efficiency of cordwood walls, Mother Earth

News, 79.

5. Hart, Kelly and Rosana (2007), Cordwood (Green Home Building website).

6. Miner, R.G. (1983), Homebuilding & shelter, Mother Earth News.

7. Pierquet, P., Bowyer, J., Huelman, P. (1998). Thermal performance and

embodied energy of cold climate wall systems. Forest Products Journal, Vol.
48, Issue 6, pp. 53–60.

8. Roy, Rob (June–July 2003), The charm of cordwood construction, Mother

Earth News.

9. Whitton, W. (1998), Comparative economic analysis between building

methods: stud frame, straw bale, cob & cordwood masonry.

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