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PHINMA – University of Pangasinan

College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Architecture

FRIDAY (7:30 AM – 8:30 AM)

ARC 074: BUILDING

BUILDING MATERIALS
TECHNOLOGY 2
Research Work No. 01

FRANCIA, MARK KEVIN P.

(B2-3BSARC-01)

\\\ AR. LESTER V. GARCIA

Instructor
1. WOOD

COMPONENTS
Wood is made up of three major or basic components:  1) cellulose, the
framework or skeleton;  2) hemicellulose, the matrix;  3) lignin, the encrusting or "glue-
like" substance that holds and binds the cells together and gives the cell wall rigidity.  
Other components are extractives, which are organic compounds that are usually in the
lumens of dead heartwood cells, and tannins, which are complex substances.  Cellulose
is the most abundant organic chemical on earth.  The amount of cellulose in normal
wood is about the same in softwoods and hardwoods, about 42%.  The specific gravity
of cellulose is 1.53.  How densely the cellulose is packed, and how abundant other
substances are, makes up the density or weight of wood.  Cellulose is made up of
glucose units in a long line.  Cellulose is made up of highly ordered portions called
crystalline and portions not highly ordered called amorphose.  Hemicelloses are
polysaccharides associated with cellulose and lignin.  Pectin is also a polysaccharide,
but it is a much larger molecule than the hemicelluloses.  The part you need to know is
that the sugar units are the building blocks for these compounds, and the sugar units
"lock up" their energy as these large molecules are formed.  Later, when the
microorganisms attack wood, they begin cleving or breaking the large molecules into
smaller and smaller units until they can get to the energy bonds.  Fungi can do it, and
some protozoa, but not us.  Lignins are very complex three-dimensional polymers made
up of phenylpropane units.  They encrust the intercellular space and any openings in
the cell wall after the cellulose and hemicellulose has been deposited.  Wood is made
up of 25 to 30% lignin.  In pulping, the lignin is removed.  Many microorganisms cannot
digest lignin.  Some can, and they may be very valuable for biological pulping.  Fomes
pini digests lignin very effectively.

USES AND INSTALLATION

Wood is generally classified as hardwood and softwood. Hardwood is typically
heavier and denser than softwood and is usually utilized for construction of walls,
ceilings and floors. The highest possible grade of hardwood contains 83%
usable material on one face and is suitable for high-quality furnishings, solid wood
moldings and interior joinery.
 Softwoods are generally used to make more of the inner structures to
the frame of hardwoods, such as doors and window frames. It is also used to
produce furniture.

The words ‘lumber’ and ‘timber’ are often used to refer to wood used specifically
in construction work, however there is debate as to which terms should apply to
different scenarios. As a rule of thumb, wood which is smaller than five inches wide by
five inches thick is referred to as lumber. These pieces are usually machine-planed and
sewn for certain dimensions primarily being used in residential construction.

Pieces of wood over the lumber dimensions, regardless of length are timber,

although any timber pieces that are more than eight inches wide and eight inches thick
are called beams. As timber is usually larger in dimension it is used for
the frames of structures in buildings and bridges, as well as being used in railroad
ties, mine shaft support and crossbeams on utility poles.

PROS
Variation: According to the Botanical Gardens Conservation International (BGCI), there
are over 60,000 different species of wood in the world, each with its own distinct
properties. One piece of lumber may be prettier than the other, and another may be
stronger in strength. One thing is certain, there definitely is a variety from which to
choose.

Acoustics: We all know wood is a common material used to construct most

instruments. This is because wood is ideal for sound absorption by preventing echoes
and vibrating noise. When it comes to buildings, wood is heavily favorite in concert
halls.

Warmth: Wood generally gives off a warmer feeling when compared to concrete or
steel materials. This is because the amount of energy to change the temperature, or
specific heat, of wood is almost twice that of concrete and three times that of steel.

Maintenance & Repair: Wood is easy to maintain and repair. There are many
treatments for wood finishes including oils, stains, and paints that can be applied and
effective within a few hours. If repairs are needed, both contractors and homeowners
can easily use hand-held tools to cut, plain, or fasten wooden materials together.

CONS
Shrinkage and Swelling: Trees need water to grow and wooden materials can easily
absorb water if not treated or maintained properly. When water gets into the wooden
fibers, the material expands, and its structural properties become much weaker.

Pests & Fungi: Certain pests, insects, and fungi have the ability to digest wood. If a
home is not protected against them, it’s a never-ending buffet. Some small insects, such
as termites, may drill and drive lines into the wood fibers that can lead to significant
deterioration of the wood material before it’s too late. Not only will pest treatments be
needed, but wooden structural members may need to be replaced as well.

Fire: Unless treated with chemicals, wood can easily catch fire and is considered a
combustible material. Thicker wood may extend the burning point of wooden materials,
but engineered materials, such as oriented strand board or engineered I-joists, can
easily catch fire, burn quickly, and spread very fast.

2. CONCRETE

COMPONENTS
Concrete is a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed rock and/or other aggregates that
are held together by a hardened paste of cement and water. The properties of concrete
vary depending on the ingredients used and their proportions in the mix.

USES AND INSTALLATION

Concrete is used for many applications, including basic foundations,
superstructures, waste-water treatment facilities, water treatment facilities, parking
structures, floor construction, and exterior surfaces. Along with concrete, the form
systems has evolved to allow for more efficient placement, large quantity placement,
and architectural finish features that may be desired.

When referring to concrete work, the typical application is through the use of
cast-in-place concrete. Often times, foundations for structures are constructed of formed
and reinforced footings, walls, piers, and columns or may be installed as surface drilled,
earth bearing piers, caissons, or piles. Another way that concrete has been incorporated
into construction is through the use of precast or tilt-up concrete construction, due to
construction space constraints or the desire to accelerate schedule all while potentially
enhancing quality control.
PROS
 Ingredients of concrete are easily available in most of the places.

 Unlike natural stones, concrete is free from defects and flaws.

 Concrete can be manufactured to the desired strength with an economy.

 The durability of concrete is very high.

 It can be cast to any desired shape.

 The casting of concrete can be done in the working site which makes it economical.

 The maintenance cost of concrete is almost negligible.

 The deterioration of concrete is not appreciable with age.

 Concrete makes a building fire-safe due to its noncombustible nature.

 Concrete can withstand high temperatures.

 Concrete is resistant to wind and water. Therefore, it is very useful in storm shelters.

 As a soundproofing material cinder concrete could be used.

CONS
 Compared to other binding materials, the tensile strength of concrete is relatively
low.

 Concrete is less ductile.

 The weight of compared is high compared to its strength.

 Concrete may contains soluble salts. Soluble salts cause efflorescence

3. BRICKS
COMPONENTS
Alumina: It is the chief constituent of every kind of clay. A good brick should
contain 20% to 30% of alumina. This constituent imparts plasticity to the clay so that it
can be molded. If alumina is present in excess, with inadequate quantity of sand, the
raw bricks shrink and warp during drying /burning and become too hard when burnt.

Silica: It exists in clay either as free or combined. As free sand, it is mechanically

mixed with clay. In combine form, it exists in chemical composition with alumina. A good
brick material should contain about 50% to 60% of silica. The presence of this
constituent prevents cracking, shrinking and warping of raw bricks. It thus imparts
uniform shape to the bricks. The durability of bricks depends on the proper proportion of
silica in brick material. The excess of silica destroys the cohesion between particles and
the bricks become brittle.

Lime: A small quantity of lime not exceeding 5 percent is desirable in good brick
material. It should be present in a very finely powdered state because even small
particles of the size of a pin-head cause flaking of the bricks. The lime prevents
shrinkage of raw bricks. The sand alone is infusible. But it slightly fuses at kiln
temperature in presence of lime. Such fused sand works as a hard cementing material
for brick particles. The excess of lime causes the brick to melt and hence its shape is
lost. The lumps of lime are converted into quick lime after burning and this quick lime
slakes and expands in presence of moisture. Such an action results in splitting of bricks
into pieces.

Oxide of iron: A small quantity of oxide of iron to the extent of about 5 to 6

percent is desirable in good brick material. It helps as lime to fuse sand. It also imparts
red colour to the bricks. The excess of oxide of iron makes the bricks dark blue or
blackish. If, on the other hand, the quantity of iron oxide is comparatively less, the bricks
will be yellowish in colour.

Magnesia: A small quantity of magnesia in brick material imparts yellow tint to

the bricks and decreases shrinkage. However, excess of magnesia leads to the decay
of bricks.

USES AND INSTALLATION

 Bricks are the small rectangular blocks typically made of fired or sun-dried clay,
typically used in building. The bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks
of uniform size and then by drying and burning these blocks. As bricks are of uniform
size, they can be properly arranged and further, as they are light in weight, no lifting
appliance is required to them. The bricks don’t require dressing and the art of laying
bricks is so simple that the brickwork can be carried out with the help of unskilled
labours. Thus, at places where stones are not easily available, but if plenty of clay
suitable for the manufacturing of bricks, the bricks replace stones.

PROS
Durability – Proof of the durability of brick can be seen in the countless historical
homes, churches and other buildings you see every day in the Chicagoland area. Many
of these historical landmarks have been standing for generations, and with a slight
amount of proper maintenance will be standing for generations to come.

Maintenance – Properly constructed, brick structures are easy to maintain. For the first
25 years or so, they only need an occasional washing.

Fire Resistance – Bricks are essentially highly compressed earthen materials, and their
density leaves little room for combustion to ignite and spread. In other words, brick
structures are far less combustible than those made from other building materials such
as blocks and wood.

Eco-friendly – Brick is made from some of the most abundant materials on earth – clay
and shale – and unused or damaged brick can be repurposed in numerous ways. For
example, it can be chipped into small pieces to be used as permanent landscape mulch.

Home Value – Though the initial construction costs may be somewhat higher, building
with brick can increase your home’s value by up to six percent.

CONS
Expense – Though durable, brick is more expensive than many other building
materials, and a brick home may cost 6 to 7 percent more than one with vinyl siding.

Deterioration – Porous brick can be vulnerable to mold in damp conditions, and It can
also be damaged by plant growth, such as ivy. Finally, over time, due to constant
exposure to the elements, brick can deteriorate and break down.
4. GLASS

COMPONENTS
There are literally hundreds of different compositions of glass, depending on the
final use and properties desired. The vast majority of glass is made in two different
methods, the float process (window glass and windshields and sidelights) and
containers.The main ingredients are very much the same though.

Sand or Silica or Silicon dioxide is the major component making up to 70% or

more of the ‘batch’ Calcium carbonate (aragonite, sea shells), Sodium carbonate (soda
ash), Potassium carbonate (potash), and barium carbonate or sulfate (barytes) are the
next major components and are known as modifiers. Sodium sulfate, Arsenic oxide,
antimony oxide, tin oxide (rutile), and sodium chloride are added as fining agents to help
reduce the bubble size and aid in the reabsorption of the gases into the glass matrix.
One or more are generally used at a time.

They will also help impart other qualities into the glass, such as luster and
brilliance Iron, cobalt, manganese, and chromium generally in the form of oxides are
introduced into the glass as colorants.

Other mineral compounds are also used and all of these will be added either
singularly or in combination in trace amounts (relative to the size of the batch) to impart
a specific color or other specific property.

USES AND INSTALLATION

Glass is being used in the building industry, whether it’s used to make
conventional windows or structural members in new-age buildings. Glass is used in
construction and for architectural purposes in engineering. With so many different
properties and uses, you can definitely say that glass can be just as great
as aluminum and steel. 

PROS
 A glass can absorb, refracts and transmits 80% of available natural daylight in both
the directions.

 A glass can be made transparent or translucent, thus it adds extraordinary beauty to

the building.

 It can be blown, drawn and pressed to any shape and hence it is used for various
purposes.

 It is dust-proof and can be easily cleaned because of smooth and glossy texture
Glass does not rust so it does not degrade by time with chemicals and
surroundings.

 A glass is 100% recyclable and it does not degrade during the process of recycling.
The broken pieces of glass can be gathered and melted and it becomes reusable.

 It is unaffected by noise, air, water and most of the acids thus, it makes the building
look beautiful lifelong.

CONS
 A glass is unsafe for earthquake proven area.

 Use of glass in a building enhances the cost of security because of the transparency

 The glass is made of very rigid and easily breakable material so when it is subjected
to stress, it breaks without strain

 Broken pieces of glass are very sharp and can hurt badly

 Glass offers transparency of heat hence the heat needs to be balanced with
relatively low R-value.

 Glass absorbs heat and acts as a greenhouse, hence are not suitable for hot
climates.

 Glare is one of the most problematic things in glass façade building.

5. CERAMICS
COMPONENTS
Ceramics are commonly understood to be all industrially used materials that are
inorganic, nonmetallic solids. Usually they are metal oxides (that is, compounds of
metallic elements and oxygen), but many ceramics (especially advanced ceramics) are
compounds of metallic elements and carbon, nitrogen, or sulfur. In atomic structure they
are most often crystalline, although they also may contain a combination of glassy and
crystalline phases. These structures and chemical ingredients, though various, result in
universally recognized ceramic-like properties of enduring utility, including the following:
mechanical strength in spite of brittleness; chemical durability against the deteriorating
effects of oxygen, water, acids, bases, salts, and organic solvents; hardness,
contributing to resistance against wear; thermal and electrical conductivity considerably
lower than that of metals; and an ability to take a decorative finish.

USES AND INSTALLATION

Ceramics are used in the manufacture of paper in building materials. For
example, tiles, bricks, pipes, tiles. Ceramic pipes are considered the most
environmentally friendly, since in the process of their manufacture only water and clay
are used. We meet on the important advantages of ceramic pipes is considered
durability. However, use should determine whether the pipe can withstand the required
load. If it is not strong enough or the load is too large, it may cause the pipe to burst.
Ceramic tiles are a fairly common finishing material. In its manufacture of used sand
and clay. Ceramic tile is characterized by many positive qualities, including durability,
resistance to fire, high strength. Also, ceramic tiles are resistant to various chemical,
therefore, when processing it, you can use any detergent.

Ceramic tiles are not afraid of sunlight, low temperatures, as well as water. No
harmful microorganisms multiply on its surface. All kinds of dirt can be easily removed
from the surface of the ceramic tile, using only water. Among the disadvantages of this
material is its fragility during transportation. Ceramic tiles are easily damaged or broken,
both during transport and during installation. Recently gained popularity tiles, made of
ceramics. Among its advantages distinguish a sufficiently long service life. She can
serve more than a dozen years. Ceramic tiles provide good thermal insulation of the
room. It also prevents the penetration of indoor noise from the street. Therefore, It can
be used as a roof for the attic. Ceramic tile is not exposed to water. She is also steadily
on fire, she is not afraid of low temperatures.

The strength of ceramic tiles can be increased using special formulations. It also
allows you to extend the life of the material. The disadvantage of such tiles is
considered quite a lot of weight. This makes the installation of ceramic tiles rather
difficult. Also, its weight must be considered when designing a building project. Ceramic
bricks are often used in the construction of various publications, as it is characterized by
good insulation performance. The summer period it contributes to keeping the house in
place. Such a brick breaks during transportation. However, it requires certain skills
during installation. This process is quite difficult and can take a lot of time. 

PROS
 Harder than conventional structure metals.

 Low coefficient of friction.

 Extremely high melting point.

 Corrosion resistance. 

 Low density.

 Extreme hardness.

 Inexpensive.

 Easily available.

 Glazed ceramic does not stain.

CONS
 Dimensional tolerances difficult to control during processing.

 Weak in tension.

 Poor shock resistance.

 Can crack when hit with heavy items.

6. STEEL
COMPONENTS
The major component of steel is iron, a metal that in its pure state is not much
harder than copper. Omitting very extreme cases, iron in its solid state is, like all other
metals, polycrystalline—that is, it consists of many crystals that join one another on their
boundaries. A crystal is a well-ordered arrangement of atoms that can best be pictured
as spheres touching one another. They are ordered in planes, called lattices, which
penetrate one another in specific ways. For iron, the lattice arrangement can best be
visualized by a unit cube with eight iron atoms at its corners. Important for the
uniqueness of steel is the allotropy of iron—that is, its existence in two crystalline forms.
In the body-centred cubic (bcc) arrangement, there is an additional iron atom in the
centre of each cube. In the face-centred cubic (fcc) arrangement, there is one additional
iron atom at the centre of each of the six faces of the unit cube. It is significant that the
sides of the face-centred cube, or the distances between neighbouring lattices in the fcc
arrangement, are about 25 percent larger than in the bcc arrangement; this means that
there is more space in the fcc than in the bcc structure to keep foreign (i.e.,  alloying)
atoms in solid solution.

Iron has its bcc allotropy below 912° C (1,674° F) and from 1,394° C (2,541° F)
up to its melting point of 1,538° C (2,800° F). Referred to as ferrite, iron in its bcc
formation is also called alpha iron in the lower temperature range and delta iron in the
higher temperature zone. Between 912° and 1,394° C iron is in its fcc order, which is
called austenite or gamma iron. The allotropic behaviour of iron is retained with few
exceptions in steel, even when the alloy contains considerable amounts of other
elements.

USES AND INSTALLATION

The possibilities for using steel in buildings and infrastructure are limitless. The
most common applications are listed below.

For buildings:
Structural sections: these provide a strong, stiff frame for the building and make up
25% of the steel use in buildings.

Reinforcing bars: these add tensile strength and stiffness to concrete and make up
44% of steel use in buildings. Steel is used because it binds well to concrete, has a
similar thermal expansion coefficient and is strong and relatively cost-effective.
Reinforced concrete is also used to provide deep foundations and basements and is
currently the world’s primary building material.
Sheet products: 31% is in sheet products such as roofing, purlins, internal walls,
ceilings, cladding, and insulating panels for exterior walls.

Non-structural steel: steel is also found in many non-structural applications in

buildings, such as heating and cooling equipment and interior ducting.

Internal fixtures and fittings such as rails, shelving and stairs are also made of steel. 

For infrastructure:
Transport networks: steel is required for bridges, tunnels, rail track and in constructing
buildings such as fueling stations, train stations, ports and airports. About 60% of steel
use in this application is as rebar and the rest is sections, plates and rail track.

Utilities (fuel, water, power): over 50% of the steel used for this application is in
underground pipelines to distribute water to and from housing, and to distribute gas.
The rest is mainly rebar for power stations and pumping houses.

PROS
 Safety and durability: Steel is widely regarded as an incredibly safe material to
work with for residential construction. Unlike wood, it does not splinter or warp which
means it can be safely secured away during construction.

 Reduced construction costs: Advances in steel fabrication techniques mean that

pieces can come premade to a certain specification, so that on-site rework will not
be required to make it the right size. This greatly reduces labor costs and the
potential for structural integrity weaknesses to be introduced into the construction.

 Lightness is key: Steel beams and girders, while not exactly something that should
be lifted by hand, are comparatively lightweight compared to their wood
counterparts. This makes transporting steel cost effective across vast distances,
which is essential in a country like Australia.

 Recyclability: Several million tons of steel undergo a recycling process every year,

being reshaped into new forms that are just as durable and tough as originally
sourced materials.

CONS
 Fire damage: While steel itself isn’t flammable, it is an excellent conductor of heat.
This means that if fire comes into contact with it, the fire can spread to any material
the steel touches. Additionally, extreme heat can warp or weaken steel to threaten
the structural integrity of the residential dwelling. To combat this, engineers use
special fireproof coatings like concrete or mineral coatings to prevent the steel from
reaching the temperature required to ignite adjacent materials.

 Susceptibility to the elements: Electrochemical oxidation, or rusting, occurs when

untreated steel is exposed to the elements for an extended period of time. This
weakens the cohesiveness of the material and makes it brittle. To combat this,
specialized surface coatings and application methods are applied to the steel
surface to prevent it from making direct contact with oxygen. Methods include coal
tar painting, dry abrasive blasting or the application of titanium, nickel or aluminium
alloys.

 Long-term fatigue: Applying excessive tension can weaken, or fatigue, steel

elements. This can be seen in large structures that have variations of tensile
strength applied to them such as a tall, narrow house that is subject to strong winds
which push it around from various directions. Engineers need to be mindful that
outside forces are applied to a structure evenly, so that no one steel element takes
more tensile tension than another.

7. CARBON FIBER

COMPONENTS
Carbon fiber is composed of carbon atoms bonded together to form a long chain.
The fibers are extremely stiff, strong, and light, and are used in many processes to
create excellent building materials. Carbon fiber material comes in a variety of "raw"
building-blocks, including yarns, uni-directional, weaves, braids, and several others,
which are in turn used to create composite parts. The properties of a carbon fiber part
are close to that of steel and the weight is close to that of plastic. Thus the strength to
weight ratio (as well as stiffness to weight ratio) of a carbon fiber part is much higher
than either steel or plastic. Carbon fiber is extremely strong. It is typical in engineering
to measure the benefit of a material in terms of strength to weight ratio and stiffness to
weight ratio, particularly in structural design, where added weight may translate into
increased life-cycle costs or unsatisfactory performance.
 Carbon fibers or carbon fibres are fibers about 5–10 micrometres in diameter and
composed mostly of carbon atoms. Carbon fibers have several advantages including
high stiffness, high tensile strength, low weight, high chemical resistance, high
temperature tolerance and low thermal expansion. These properties have made carbon
fiber very popular in aerospace, civil engineering, military, and motorsports, along with
other competition sports. However, they are relatively expensive when compared with
similar fibers, such as glass fibers or plastic fibers.

USES AND INSTALLATION

Over the past few decades the construction field has developed in a way which
cannot be explained to a normal person. It is due to the fact that with new findings and
new technology scientists have been able to invent new types of materials that were
never thought of. Carbon fiber is one such type of versatile material. In this article we
are going to talk about how Carbon fiber has helped to develop the construction sector
of the world.

First it will be useful to identify what factors help Carbon fibers of these new
accomplishments. The versatile properties of carbon fiber include high stiffness, high
tensile strength, high chemical resistance, high temperature tolerance and low thermal
expansion. These make them one of the most popular and used material in Civil
engineering possessing strength up to five times that of steel and being lighter in
weight, we might as well call it ‘the superhero’ of the material world. Indeed it is the
“Superhero”. It is also called graphite fiber or carbon graphite. Carbon fiber is made of
very thin strands of the element Carbon.

Carbon fibers have high tensile strength and are very strong for their size. In fact,
carbon fiber can be the strongest material. Carbon fibers consist of a high elastic
modulus and fatigue strength when compared to glass fibers, making them ideal for the
construction industry. Considering service life, it has been suggested that carbon fiber
reinforced polymers have more potential than agamid and glass fibers. Carbon fiber
reinforced polymers also are highly chemically resistant and have high temperature
tolerance with low thermal expansion and corrosion resistance. So what else to talk
about its application when it comes to the Construction industry? So let us see now how
carbon Fiber is used in Construction.

This field is relatively new and rapidly in progress. Carbon fibers in precast
concrete started to appear in quantity-production from 2003. Now it is a very common
material for precast elements in the North America. A carbon fiber grid is used in the
panel faces to replace steel mesh reinforcement, and as a mechanical link to the outer
and inner sections of a concrete wall. Non-corrosive carbon fiber grid strengthening in
the wall panel face allows less use of concrete, which reduces weight and raw material
used. The wall panels with carbon fiber grid reinforcement weighs about 40% less than
conventional precast panels.

It is used as a shear grid to connect the inner and outer concrete exterior of
sandwich wall panels, creating a fully structurally compound, thermally efficient unit.
Carbon fiber grid is integrated as reinforcing in the double tee slab to replace
conventional steel mesh. Replacing welded gird with carbon fiber grid in the slabs
reduces weight and the need of protection from chemicals.

PROS
 Lightweight – carbon fiber is a low density material with a very high strength to
weight ratio

 High tensile strength – one of the strongest of all commercial reinforcing fibers
when it comes to tension, carbon fiber is very difficult to stretch or bend

 Low thermal expansion – carbon fiber will expand or contract much less in hot or
cold conditions than materials like steel and aluminum

 Exceptional durability – carbon fiber has superior fatigue properties compared to

metal, meaning components made of carbon fiber won’t wear out as quickly under
the stress of constant use

 Corrosion-resistance – when made with the appropriate resins, carbon fiber is one
of the most corrosion-resistant materials available

 Radiolucence – carbon fiber is transparent to radiation and invisible in x-rays,

making it valuable for usage in medical equipment and facilities

 Electrical conductivity – carbon fiber composites are an excellent conductor of

electricity

 Ultra-violet resistant – carbon fiber can be UV resistant with use of the proper
resins

CONS
Carbon fiber will break or shatter when it’s compressed, pushed beyond its
strength capabilities or exposed to high impact. It will crack if hit by a hammer.
Machining and holes can also create weak areas that may increase its likelihood of
breaking.

 Relative cost – carbon fiber is a high quality material with a price to match. While
prices have dropped significantly in the past five years, demand has not increased
enough to increase the supply substantially. As a result, prices will likely remain the
same for the near future.

8. ALUMINUM

COMPONENTS
Aluminum (Al), also spelled aluminum, chemical element, a lightweight, silvery-
white metal of main Group 13 (IIIa, or boron group) of the periodic table. Aluminum is
the most abundant metallic element in Earth’s crust and the most widely used
nonferrous metal. Because of its chemical activity, aluminum never occurs in the
metallic form in nature, but its compounds are present to a greater or lesser extent in
almost all rocks, vegetation, and animals. Aluminum is concentrated in the outer 16 km
(10 miles) of Earth’s crust, of which it constitutes about 8 percent by weight; it is
exceeded in amount only by oxygen and silicon. The name aluminum is derived from
the Latin word alumen, used to describe potash alum, or aluminum potassium sulfate,
KAl(SO4)2∙12H2O.

USES AND ISTALLATION

Modern building and construction is more than merely erecting buildings as
functionally as possible. In addition to functional and economic criteria, aesthetic and
design considerations together with ecological demands placed on building projects
play an equally important role. This means the materials used are of major significance.
Aluminum, the building material for the modern age, established itself as an important
factor in the building and construction industry during the course of the 20th century.
Aluminum enables every possible architectural concept to be realized – regardless of
whether it is a new build or a modernization. Possible applications range from façades
and roof and wall manufacturers of Aluminum building products systems to interior
decoration and the design of living are world leaders technologically – not least space,
and include windows and doors, balconies because the companies have furthered the
and conservatories development of modern windows and façades in the fields of
surface treatment, thermal insulation and soundproofing, air conditioning and solar
heating. With an annual domestic demand of about 500,000 tonnes, the building and
construction industry is the second largest market for aluminum products in Germany.
Its share of the total aluminum market is 15 percent.

PROS
 Environmentally Sustainable - As mentioned briefly above, aluminum is a very
sustainable material as it can be recycled. Composed of anywhere from 50-85% of
recyclable material, aluminum used in structures such as skyscrapers can enhance
a greener building design.

 Reducing Costs - As aluminum reflects sunlight, this allows buildings to stay much
cooler during the warmer months, which can help reduce electricity costs. By
utilizing this material and large glass windows, you can often save on heating and
lighting costs. With so many environmental and financial benefits, aluminum is
quickly becoming one of the most preferred materials for structures around the
world.

 Strong & Weatherproof Buildings - Another benefit of using aluminum in

structures is because of its strength and durability. This material can stand up to a
significant amount of weight without causing the building to be too heavy. Buildings
constructed with aluminum can support heavy glass panes that promote natural
sunlight throughout the building.

 Flexible - Due to the characteristics of aluminum like being durable, strong and
light, it does make it an ideal material for the construction industry. As such, due to
its flexibility, it can be curved, extruded and cut into incredible shapes. It does not
matter where this material is cut, as it resistant to corrosion and trimmed edges do
not need to be protected.

CONS
 More Expensive Than Steel - If you are working on a large building project, you
will want to save money where possible. Unfortunately, aluminum is more expensive
when compared to steel. Additionally, because it can’t take the same stress as
steel, you will have to use more of it; meaning more costs.

 Welding Process - When working with aluminum in construction, it is welded

differently to steel making it a little harder to use. Aluminum requires special
 processes to be welded which can be costly and take a little longer than other
methods.

 Weight - Aluminum can dent, scratch more easily and of course, is much lighter
when compared to steel. Steel is strong and less likely to warp, deform or bend
under any weight, force or heat. Nevertheless, the strength of steel’s trade-off is that
steel is much heavier and denser than aluminum.

9. STONE

COMPONENTS
Stones are naturally occurring rocks of igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic
origin. Most of the rocks are sufficiently consolidated to enable them to be cut or made
into various shapes and blocks or slabs to be used walling, paving or roofing materials.
Rocks are mostly used in the construction of buildings and hundreds of structures.
Stones are categorized into building stones, ornamental stones and dimension stones.
A building stone is chosen for its properties of durability, attractiveness, and economy. A
dimension stone is a building stone that is often quarried and prepared in blocks
according to specifications. A decorative stone is a stone that can be quarried, cut or
carved and is most highly valued for its pleasing appearance. It is more often used in
interior construction for decoration and monuments than as standard building stone.
Millions of stones of crushed rock are needed annually for road base, paving, ready-
mixed concrete and asphalt. The study of the properties of stones is a part of
engineering geology and mining geology.

USES AND INSTALLATION

When one thinks of stone, its use in famous buildings probably first comes to
mind, but few people probably realize that stone in some form enters our lives probably
a hundred times even before we leave the house each day. Five main groups of uses
can be identified:

Building and decorative stone – stone used for its resistance to weather or its
aesthetic appeal – walls and decorative purposes. Buildings, walls, paving slabs.
Aggregates – stone used for its strong physical properties – crushed and sorted into
various sizes for use in concrete, coated with bitumen to make asphalt or used 'dry' as
bulk fill in construction. Mostly used in roads, concrete and building products.

Industrial purposes – limestone can be used for its chemical (mainly alkaline)
properties as calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in farming and manufacturing industry.

Lime burning (calcining) – limestone when heated to a high temperature breaks down
into lime (calcium oxide) and carbon dioxide gas. It can then be used as a more
powerful alkali than limestone (see above) or used as a cement with sand, to make
mortar, or as a soil improver in agriculture.

Cement – if limestone (or its variety chalk) is mixed with clay or sandstone before firing,
it can produce Portland cement which when mixed with aggregate makes concrete.

PROS
 Sustainability – stone is a natural construction material, it does not require any
other resource to make it. This alone makes it very environment-friendly. It does not
also require any use of chemicals to forge because it can be sourced almost
anywhere.

 Durable – stone isresistant to water, fire, wind, and other natural factors that
typically affect a house. It does not mold and it is not prone to termites or majority of
pests that attack a structure. Basically, stone is damage free.

 Low maintenance – a stone house does not require extensive maintenance even
over time. In the long run, it only requires minimal cleaning, and its appearance and
quality will still be the same.

 Promotes comfort living – if properly insulated, stone helps the efficient regulation
of temperature in a home, keeping you relatively warm during winters and well
ventilated during summers.  

 Aesthetic appeal – stones come in many different designs, and there are several
ways to work on it. It’s only a matter of getting picking the right stone material that
will fit with your home design requirements.

CONS
 Expensive – about the most challenging factor to face when building a stone house
is the cost of the stone material and its construction.

 Expert contractor – building a stone house requires highly specialized skills.

Expert contractors do not come cheap too.

 Longer construction process – The process of selecting the best stone for your
particular home requirement is of utmost importance. Stone is a heavy construction
material, it requires special care and handling. Precision is essential when setting it
too. 

10. MASONRY

COMPONENTS
Masonry, while often simple and elegant in form, can be complex in behavior.
Also, unlike concrete, it cannot be ordered by the cubic yard. To understand its
behavior, and to be able to specify masonry correctly, we must examine each of its
basic components.

Basic Components of Masonry:

 Mortar

 Grout

 Accessory Materials

USES AND INSTALLATION

In the architectural history of masonry, we have seen that masonry can be used
in a wide variety of architectural applications, including: walls (bearing, shear,
structural, decorative, bas-relief, mosaic), arches, domes and vaults, beams, and
columns.

PROS
 The use of masonry unit such as bricks, concrete blocks, and stones can increase
the thermal mass of a building.

 Masonry is a non-combustible product and can protect occupants, valuable things

and the building from fire.

 Masonry structures/walls are more resistant to natural hazards such as hurricanes

or tornadoes and even good at stopping most types of rifle and pistol rounds.

 Masonry has extremely long usable life. You don’t see any 2 or 3-thousand-year-old
wood buildings but there are plenty of masonry structures those old who still exist.

 It won’t burn, which makes it great for building fireplaces.

 It can be quite decorative depending on the skilled mason doing the building.

 Masonry can withstand large amounts of compressive weight loads.

 Masonry structure will give more resale value.

 Masonry does not rot. Insects like termites, ants and other creepy crawlies don’t
disturb the masonry structure.

 Masonry construction cost is less in both materials and labor as compared to

wooden construction.

CONS
 Masonry construction involves products i.e. brick, stone, and concrete block that are
extremely heavy, cannot be delivered in a conventional vehicle and often must be
ordered from a special catalog. The cost of selecting and moving the materials is
compounded because masonry construction cannot be conducted in a heavy rain or
under freezing conditions.

 The installation also requires excessive construction time and manpower with highly
specialized skills.

 Masonry structures rely completely on their foundation for stability while, wooden
structures can bend slightly with the settling of the foundation This means that as
the house settles, cracks that occur can let in moisture. If these cracks are not
repaired, the resulting moisture intrusion can cause structural problems, leading to
collapse of the damage to the masonry structure.
 Sometimes, masonry construction can lead to the premature and extensive sinking
of the foundation as compared to the wooden structure.

11. PLASTIC

COMPONENTS
The term “plastics” includes materials composed of various elements such as
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, and sulfur. Plastics typically have high
molecular weight, meaning each molecule can have thousands of atoms bound
together. Naturally occurring materials, such as wood, horn and rosin, are also
composed of molecules of high molecular weight. The manufactured or synthetic
plastics are often designed to mimic the properties of natural materials. Plastics, also
called polymers, are produced by the conversion of natural products or by the synthesis
from primary chemicals generally coming from oil, natural gas, or coal. 

Most plastics are based on the carbon atom. Silicons, which are based on the
silicon atom, are an exception. The carbon atom can link to other atoms with up to four
chemical bonds. When all of the bonds are to other carbon atoms, diamonds or graphite
or carbon black soot may result. For plastics the carbon atoms are also connected to
the aforementioned hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, or sulfur. When the
connections of atoms result in long chains, like pearls on a string of pearls, the polymer
is called a thermoplastic. Thermoplastics are characterized by being meltable. The
thermoplastics all have repeat units, the smallest section of the chain that is
identical. We call these repeat units unit cells. The vast majority of plastics, about 92%,
are thermoplastics. 

USES AND INSTALLATION

Plastic as a Roofing Systems: Corrugated plastic sheeting has been used for roofing
in conservatories and buildings where conservatories and buildings where transparent
panels have been required. However, in more recent times, double and triple walled
polycarbonate sheeting has become increasingly used, since this provides not only
diffuse daylight for illumination but also heat insulation and hence reduced heating
costs.
Twin or triple walled polycarbonate: Provides a number of advantages during
installation since it can be cut with conventional tools, is rigid to handle, does not require
closely spaced supports is light in weight-spaced supports, is light in weight and can be
easily fitted. In addition, it can be cold formed or thermo formed into a variety of shapes
to provide attractive and functional curved surfaces. Edges and joints can be sealed to
prevent droughts. Another major advantage is its resistance to breakage.

Cladding Panels: UPVC products are now frequently used in place of the more
traditional products for external cladding panels fascia and for external cladding panels,
fascia and soft boards, particularly on new buildings. Some of the advantages of UPVC
are lighter weight, resistance to rot, lack of warp and lack of need for regular
maintenance painting. Products are available in a variety of colors, including wood grain
finishes. These may be of solid UPVC, double. These may be of solid UPVC, double
skin or foam filled double skin construction. Fixing of UPVC products due allowance.
Fixing of UPVC products- due allowance must be made for expansion and contraction
to prevent buckling of the sheets due to the heating effect of sunlight.

Sound Insulation: Sound within buildings may be general noise transmitted through
walls and floors or a specific noise from vibrating machinery. The latter can be dealt with
by using vibration mounts as mentioned above Air-borne noise can also present above.
Air borne noise can also present problems and must be taken into account when
designing sound insulation systems. With general noise, the traditional method was to
build very thick and heavy walls and floors. However, as buildings have become lighter,
other methods of sound reduction have become necessary As a reduction have become
necessary. As a general principle, sound insulation can be provided by either a simple
and heavy or a light and complex construction which is a light and complex
construction, which is now replaced by the rubber and plastics materials.

Thermal Insulation: As well as sound insulation, buildings need thermal insulation

also. This can be met by using light weight concrete building blocks during the
construction of the building or by incorporating foamed plastic sheeting in corporate
foamed plastic sheeting within the structure. Typical foamed plastics include rigid
polyurethane foam and expanded polystyrene and expanded polystyrene, although
various other foamed plastics may also be used. Plasterboard can be readily obtained
with a 25 mm foamed polystyrene backing. Other composite sheet building products
can be obtained with polyurethane foam cores. They can be kept clean with very little
effort.

Plastic Decorative Laminates: The normal structure of a plastic decorative laminate

includes a sheet of decorative paper-sheet of decorative paper impregnated (saturated)
with one or more resins. Plastic decorative laminates have a wide range of uses, they
can be used in the furniture industry for kitchen cabinet counters, bookshelves and door
linings, among many other things. In the building industry they can be used for partitions
screens in order to divide space in offices houses divide space in offices, houses, etc...

Plastic Adhesives & Sealants: There are also water-based versions that can provide
better heat resistance. Generally solvent-based, these cost effective, gap-filling
adhesives are suitable for bonding sheet flooring, adhering skirting and architraves,
signs and wall panels. They have good adhesion to most substrates (especially porous
substrates (especially porous materials such as wood, concrete, brick and
plasterboard). Sealants- create a flexible, durable bond which is vibration- and shock-
resistant.

PROS
 Plastics are convenient

 Plastics are cheap

 Variety of different uses

 Hygienic packaging material

 Other packaging materials would increase product prices

 Products have a long durability with plastic wrappings

 It is durable

 Plastics are lightweight

 Odorless in most cases

 Plastic products could be used multiple times

 Plastics are not fragile

 Plastic has a long lifespan

 Many industries rely on plastics

 Processes around plastics have been optimized

 Potential eco-friendly plastics in the future

 There are even worse materials out there

 No methane emissions from plastic

 Can be reused for energy production purposes

 Employment opportunities for many people

 Less food waste

 Humanity is dependent on plastics to a certain extent

CONS
 Plastics hurt the environment

 Environmental dumping

 Non-renewable resource

 Not sustainable in the long run

 Water pollution

 Air pollution

 Acid rain

 Land pollution

 Littering

 Resource depletion

 Visual pollution

 Global warming

 Ocean pollution

 Soil pollution

 Endangerment and extinction of species

 Public health problems

 High public costs

 Not biodegradable

 Some plastics need hundreds of years to break down

 Recycling of plastics may not be possible

 Inefficient single use in many cases

 Significant costs for retailers

 The poorest among us have to pay the piper

 Long-term consequences yet unclear