Wooden (Timber)

Frame Structures
Prof. Dr. Sajjad Mubin
 Introduction
Timber is one of the most ancient building materials in the world. Multistorey
timber buildings date back for thousands of years. A 5 storey, 57m high To-ji
pagoda in Kyoto Japan was constructed in 1695 and is to this day the highest
timber building in Japan. The older and taller Sakyamuni pagoda in Yingxian
province, China was constructed in 1056 and stands at 67.3m, it is the tallest Sakyamuni pagoda (CCO 2008)
ancient timber structure in the world.
Medieval Europe also used a large amount of timber framing for the construction
of timber buildings. The oldest surviving of these dates from the 12th century.
The Knochen-haueramt-shaus in Germany was once considered the most
beautiful half-timber building in the world, with 8 storeys standing 25.72m tall. A
half timber building consists of wood framing filled with plaster, brick or stone.
The Knochenhaueramtshaus (Knochenhaueramtshaus.com 2007)
 Introduction
Some of the earliest known timber houses in Europe have been found in
Scotland and England dating to Neolithic times.Although timber
construction has had a long history throughout the world, in latter years it
has been falling behind ‘modern’ construction material such as concrete and
steel.
Modern timber construction largely consists of residential structures. This is
mainly due to the use of large wall panels being necessary for seismic
resistance. Timber moment connections have previously been avoided due
to difficulty of construction and significant costs. However, as global focus
shifts towards sustainability and environmental concerns timber
construction is an obvious choice for the future.
 Timber Frame Structures
• This method relies on timber frame beams as a means of structural support for the proposed
building.
• Timber structures can be separated into two categories; light timber framing, and heavy timber
construction. House construction with frames is often referred to as “lightweight construction.”
• It is an engineered, quality assured building method that is the norm in most parts of the developed
world. It is envisaged that over 70% of people in the developed world live in timber frame housing.
• It was adopted as a means for rapid construction in potentially adverse weather conditions.
• Timber frame is currently the fastest growing method of construction in Europe and USA.
• Timber frame has been around successfully for hundreds of years, while traditional, brick and
block construction has only been in widespread use since the 1930's.
• In terms of strength and durability, timber frame is the most tried and tested form of construction in
the world.
 Benefits of Timber Frame Structures
■ Fast and easy to build and renovate;
■ Durable;
■ Built from a renewable resource;
■ A natural insulator that is easy to insulate to minimize heating and cooling costs;
■ Strong, light and flexible using basic tools and fasteners;
■ Easily tailored to the range of wind and snow loads found throughout Canada;
■ Easily reinforced to withstand extreme wind and earthquake loads;
■ Adaptable to all climates ranging from hot and humid to extremely cold climates;
 Benefits of Timber Frame Structures
■ Able to meet or exceed code-established levels of fire safety and sound
control.
■ The panels are manufactured in a factory environment under strict quality
practices and engineering terms;
■ Can incorporate a large variety of exterior finishes;
■ It lends itself well to prefabrication and mass-production;
■ By far the most environmentally friendly way to build;
■ Sound control.
 Environmental Advantages of Timber
Frame
• Wood is a highly effective insulating material. The average fuel maintenance cost of a
timber frame home is approximately 40% less than for masonry buildings.
• Timber frame is a “dry” form of construction which avoids the long drying out period
associated with “wet” construction. A standard masonry construction needs up to 1500
gallons of water to evaporate before it is dry.
• Wood is an ecologically friendly and renewable resource.
• Using it reduces the effect of global warming.
• The manufacturing of wood products use less energy than the manufacture of other man
made products.
 Disadvantages of Timber Frames
Structures
• Poor prevention of capillary movement of water within any exposed timber,
leading to eventual creeping and warping.
• Poor acoustic insulation, footsteps and movements in adjacent rooms easily
heard.
• Decisions of unit and shelf locations must be made in design stage in order for
placement of studs.
• Wood boring insects and pest commonly present in wood frames.
• All wood will eventually rot.
 Framed Timber Building Design
Wood-frame housing may be built to various designs and specifications.
Whether a standard design is used or a custom design is created, building
code provisions and good design principles must be observed to provide a
durable house; to maximize occupant health, comfort and safety; and to
reduce a building’s environmental footprint. Building design should provide
easy access for people of diverse physical capabilities and adapt to
occupants’ changing needs. Obtain professional design assistance for special
requirements such as barrier-free access for people with disabilities.
 Framed Timber Building Design
• Structural Design
• Architectural Design
• Fire Safety
• Sound Control and Acoustics
• Insulation
• Services Design
• Finish Work Design
 Building System for Timber Framed
Structure
• The basic form of the Timber building will remain similar to that of the concrete
structure with the use of frames and walls. The structural system will be altered to
use a new method of connection currently under investigation at the University of
Canterbury. This combines the use of un-bonded post tensioning cables and
sacrificial mild steel in order to achieve force resistance. This system is essentially
damage free after a major event and will return to zero residual displacement; these
are major advantages for any structural system. The floor units are timber-concrete
composite with 65mm of reinforced concrete poured onto 17mm ply sheets which
are supported by LVL joists. Figure shows a typical flooring plan for the timber
structure.
Building System for Timber Framed
Structure
 Possible Building Design Problems

• Air tightness
• Sound insulation
• Hydrothermal aspect
• Thermal conductivity
• Fire resistivity
• Others
 Air tightness
• The air tightness, actually better known as the convection density is an essential
building physics design parameter of modern separation constructions. Dependent
on the system used, wood based material should be capable of performing within
the demands of the building code through architectural detailing. For cavity wall
solutions, barrier films and cladding could be applied when necessary, which are
thin and therefore do not effect the use of space. Measured convection density of
cross laminated timber panels can be in the order of 750 Pa (N/m2), which is
assumed to be enough for separation elements. For these reasons it is assumed
convection density does not influence the building height.
 Sound insulation
• From an acoustic point of view, wood is a light building material. The
propagation of sound though air usually does not cause problems in
timber buildings. Contact noise however is decisive, originating from the
small mass-stiffness ratio of timber. The vibrations are induced by footfall
of people using the floor surface. Horizontal acoustic separation between
units is usually not a problem.
• Vertical acoustic separation is one of the main issues in timber building
and should be resolved to perform within the limits of the building code
 Hydrothermal aspects
• Controlling the humidity is important for the timber structure to maintain durability of the
material. Scientifically the rule to be followed is that timbers are unlikely to decay if the
ambient drying rate exceeds the ambient wetting rate. The hydrothermal characteristics of
wood differs from other building materials. The storage of moister in wood and its diffusion
through walls is therefore influenced by the material choice but also highly dependent on the
architectural detailing of the wall and façade that incorporate such a choice. Constructions
including a vapor barrier film can be applied to overcome problems with moister when
necessary. Issues with vapor and moisture do not influence the height of a tall timber building
significantly, because solutions do not require a significant amount of space.
 Thermal conductivity
• Thermal conductivity depends mainly on the density and the moisture content of the used wood based
material. In general wood possesses good thermal insulation properties when compared to mineral materials
e.g. concrete or steel. Wood based materials have a positive effect on thermal insulation qualities of buildings.

• Light timber frames have good thermal insulation characteristic because the thermal contact area is small over
the total area. Solid timber building systems are homogenous, which result in homogenous temperature fields,
hence larger heat transfer, but compensate with more material and mass resulting in good insulation barriers
and heat storage in summertime. This difference has to be dealt with through common detailing of façade and
separation walls.
 Solution
The problems that are related to the building physical aspects of design have been discussed in the above.
Building physical characteristics of wood as a building material that could influence the height are
eliminated when using a curtain wall solution. Cavity wall solutions that include walls of wood based
materials can influence building physical aspects of the building but are either easily overcome or do not
influence the building height significantly. Problems with air tightness and hydrothermal aspects can be
overcome by using vapor barrier films and cladding materials. Wood based materials poses relatively good
thermal properties and therefore do not require more space for additional insulation materials then other
buildings. Because these problems can be solved within the space that is usually available for building
physical measures, they do not influence the height of a tall timber building. Problems with contact noise
sound insulation however are more difficult to overcome. Once this problem is solved there is no need for
excluding wood as a modern building material for tall buildings based on building physical performance.
 Thermal insulation
Thermal insulation is one of the key components
of sustainable timber building design. A well-insulated
home reduces energy consumption by making building more
energy efficient i.e. retaining heat in winter and not allowing heat
to come in the buildings in summer. Insulation materials are used
in roofs, walls and in some cases in floors. (Mahdavinejad
, Zia et al. 2014). The utilization of energy efficient techniques and
green architectural features is the real need of time for the remedy
of this complex matter and to enhance environmental and socio-
economic benefits (Ragheb, 2016). Socially green buildings are
architecturally appealing with no negative effect on built
environment and infrastructure (Sayigh 2013).
 Thermal insulation
Thermal insulation selection is based on various factors including cost, density, compressive strength,
environmental impact, water resistivity, and most importantly thermal conductivity (K) of any material. The
selection of any insulation material type is also dependent on the mode of application along with required thermal
and physical properties of the material (Snow 1982).

K value is the prime concern while incorporating conservation of energy and thermal performance.

ASTM standards C168 – 97 describes thermal conductivity ( K – value) the time rate of heat flow in steady state
through a unit area of a homogeneous material induced by a unit temperature gradient in a direction perpendicular
to that unit area (Khoukhi, Fezzioui et al. 2016). The basic phenomenon of heat flow of any insulation material
includes conduction, convection and radiation which results in defining thickness and density of respective material
(Peavy 1996).
Construction Process of External Walls
• During construction, open panel timber frame is covered internally by
plasterboard.
• Filled with high performance insulation.
• Moisture/vapour barriers are incorporated.
• The outer leaf of the wall (typically stone or brickwork) completes the structure.
• The timber frame is supported/attached to the external wall using stainless steel
braces.
 Fire Resistance of Timber Structure
• Advancements in fire science have given the design and construction industry a better
understanding of how timber structures perform in fire conditions. These advancements,
coupled with rising steel costs and sustainability benefits, have led to a recent resurgence in
the use of one of the world’s earliest building materials.
• By better understanding the capabilities of mass timber construction, modern building
codes are able to specify additional safety measures to maintain the fire safety of mass
timber buildings.
• As a general rule, the structural elements TIMBER members, ignite & get rapidly
destroyed in case of fire. To make timber more fire-resistant, the surfaces of timber are
coated with chemicals like ammonium phosphate & sulphate, borax & boric acid etc
 Sprinkling System
• The automatic sprinkler system involves automatic sprinklers attached to a piping system containing water
under pressure.
• These are connected a water supply so that water discharges immediately from the sprinklers opened by a
fire.
• The flow switch will allow the water to the affected area. The automatic sprinkler system involves automatic
sprinklers attached to a piping system containing water under pressure.
• These are connected a water supply so that water discharges immediately from the sprinklers opened by a
fire.
• The flow switch will allow the water to the affected area.
 Timber / Wooden Flooring
Wooden flooring is any product manufactured from timber that is designed for use as flooring
either structural or aesthetic. Wood is a common choice as a flooring material due to its
environmental profile durability and restorability, thus it provides value many home owners such
are extensively available in many styles, colours, cuts and species
There are three types of wooden flooring
• Laminated wooden flooring
• Engineered wooden flooring
• Composite wooden flooring
 Laminated floors
Laminate flooring is a
processed wood laminate
sheets which are simple
and cost-effective way of
providing wooden floors.
They are usually
available in 8mm, 10mm,
11mm and 12mm.
Life is 10 years or more.
Engineered Wooden Floors
Flooring with heating system
 Oriented Strand Boards (OSB-3)/ Sterling
Board 15mm
Sterling board is moisture resistant, load-bearing wood base sheet, manufactured in line with EN 300 performance
standard. OSB board 15mm is suitable for applications in humid conditions, and so is an ideal sheet material for structural
and nonstructural projects, as well as in both internal and external environments. The OSB 15mm 2440 x 1220mm is
predominantly used in:
• Wall sheathing
• Flooring & roofing applications
• Roof decking 
• Site hoarding 
• Sarking applications
• Suitable for GRP roofing applications 
• Garden Sheds
• Interior decoration
 Oriented Strand Boards (OSB-3)/ Sterling
Board 15mm
Sterling board (OSD-3) is moisture resistant, load-bearing wood base sheet, manufactured in line with European Standard
EN-300. OSB board 15mm is suitable for applications in humid conditions, and so is an ideal sheet material for structural
and nonstructural projects, as well as in both internal and external environments. The OSB-3 15mm 2440 x 1220mm is
predominantly used in:
OSB Type Definition
• Wall sheathing
OSB/1 General purpose, non load-bearing panels, and panels for interior
• Flooring & roofing applications fitments for use in dry conditions
• Roof decking 
OSB/2 Load-bearing panels for use in dry conditions
• Site hoarding 
OSB/3 Load-bearing panels for use in humid conditions
• Sarking applications
OSB/4 Heavy duty load-bearing panels for use in humid conditions
• Suitable for GRP roofing applications 
• Garden Sheds
• Interior decoration
 Timber-Concrete Composite Floor
Panels
• Presently at the University of Canterbury a new form of timber-concrete composite flooring is
being developed. This consists of prefabricated timber panels fabricated off-site with 65 mm
concrete topping cast on site. The timber panels are made from two adjacent 63×400 mm LVL
joists spaced at 1200 mm centres with a nailed plywood sheet (Figure 4.4). Notches cut from the
joists will be filled by concrete, reinforced by one coach screw at the centre of each notch, to
give composite behaviour. 10mm steel mesh at 200 centres is placed inside the concrete to
control shrinkage cracking. This composite behaviour allows a significant increase in stiffness
of the system. The concrete topping also improves the acoustic separation between intertenancy
floors. For further information regarding this system, and the design of it, refer to Buchanan et
al. (2008) and Yeoh et al. (2008).
Timber-Concrete Composite Floor
Panels

Timber-concrete composite flooring unit

Construction Process of Internal Walls
• Internal wall construction is similar to external wall construction, with
studs at either 400mm or 600mm centres.
• Horizontal beams (noggins) fixed to prevent lateral buckling.
• A damp proof course should be provided to the underside of all ground
floor partitions when sitting on concrete or blockwork.
• Internal partitions are usually lined with 12.5mm plasterboard, fixed and
skimmed.
 The development of a Timber Hybrid
Connection
• In 2004 an extensive research program was launched at the University of Canterbury adapting the precast
concrete ductile connection technology for use with Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL). Shown in figure
below, LVL is an engineered wood product produced by reducing the raw log into 3mm thick veneers and
gluing these veneers together under pressure in the same manner used to form plywood sections, however,
the grain is laid parallel. The process in which LVL is produce has the effect of spreading out any defects in
the timber reducing the effects of local weaknesses on the characteristic performance of the member.
• Several subassembly tests have been carried out under various loading. Beam to column (Newcombe 2005,
Smith 2006a), wall to foundation (Palermo et al. 2005, Smith 2006b, Smith et al. 2007) and column to
foundation (Pasticier 2006, Iqbal 2008) sub assemblies have been tested all with excellent results. This
testing has proved that the combination of the hybrid joint and the use of LVL provides an excellent moment
connection for framed timber structures as shown below. Testing has proved that the combination of the
hybrid joint and the use of LVL provides an excellent moment connection for framed timber structures
The development of a Timber Hybrid
Connection
Ski Lodge
Church
 PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN IN HEAVY
TIMBER CONSTRUCTION

• Wood shrinkage: Wood is subjected to large amounts of expansion and contraction caused by
seasonal changes in moisture content, particularly in the direction perpendicular to the direction of its grain
fiber. These effects must be minimized by proper detailing. Beams and girders must be allowed to shrink
without causing the floors and roof to sag

• Anchorage of heavy timber beams to masonry walls: First the beam must be
protected from decay due to moisture seepage through the masonry walls - Achieved by leaving a
ventilating airspace of at least 1/2” between masonry and all sides of beam; this can be eliminated if the
beam was chemically treated to prevent decay. The beam must be securely anchored to the wall so that it
does not pull away from the the wall during normal services; but it must be able to rotate freely, without
prying the wall apart, as it burns during a heavy fire - Methods of attachment must allow rotation of the
support after the beam falls apart due to fire damage
 PRECAUTION TO BE TAKEN IN HEAVY TIMBER
CONSTRUCTION (Cont’d)

• Mode of covering the floors and roofs with proper decking: Floor decking to
be covered with a finish floor consisting of nominal 1” thick tongue-and-grooved boards laid at right
angles or diagonal to the structural decking, or with plywood or particle boards

• Lateral bracing of buildings: Building is normally braced against wind and seismic forces
by the shear resistance of its walls, working together with the diaphragm action of its roof and floor
decks
• In areas of high seismic risk, the walls must be reinforced both vertically and horizontally, and the
decks may have to be specially nailed, or overlaid with plywood to increase its shear resistance.
In buildings with framed exterior walls, diagonal bracing or shear panels must be provided. The
roof must be properly anchored to the building