CHEMICAL CO-ORDINATION

CHEMICAL CO-ORDINATION

The human body has two interdependent integrating systems in the body, called
nervous and endocrine systems.

The endocrine system consists of endocrine glands or ductless glands which

integrate the body functions by releasing Chemical Messengers or hormones.

The secretory organs of the body are called as glands. Two types of glands are
found in the body of multicellular organisms, viz., exocrine glands and endocrine
glands.

The exocrine glands deliver their secretions by means of ducts. Sebacious glands
of skin, salivary glands of buccal cavity, gastric glands of stomach, glands of
intestine and liver are common examples of exocrine glands.

The second type of gland secretes active chemical substances directly into blood
without the help of any duct and are known as endocrine glands or ductless
glands. All the endocrine glands of the body taken together constitute
‘Enodocrine system’ and the branch of science which deals with the study of
endocrine glands is said to be “ENDOCRINOLOGY” (Gr. endon-within; krinien-
separate; logos-study).

There is a third kind of gland consisting of both exocrine and endocrine tissues.
The secretion of exocrine part is carried by ducts and the secretion of endocrine
part is carried by blood. This type of gland is termed as heterocrine gland.
Pancreas and gonads are heterocrine glands.

Endocrine Glands:
The endocrine system in vertebrates consists of the following endocrine glands
some of which are heterocrine i.e. partly endocrine and partly exocrine (Fig. 2.1).

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1. Pituitary (one)

2. Thyroid (one)

3. Parathyroid (Four)

4. Adrenals or Supra-renal glands (2)

5. The Islets of Langerhans in pancreas (Heterocrine)

6. Testes in males (2) (Heterocrine)

7. Ovaries in females (2) (Heterocrine)

8. Placenta in female

9. Thymus (one)

10. Pineal body (one)

11. Gastro intestinal mucosa (heterocrine)

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Endocrine glands are of two types:

1. Holocrine Glands: These glands secrete only hormones.
2. Heterocrine Glands:These glands secrete hormones and have other
functions also.

Structure:
Pituitary gland consists of two main lobes:
1. Anterior lobe or Anterior Pituitary.

2. Posterior lobe or posterior pituitary.  

These two lobes are connected by a small intermediate lobe.

Functions of Pituitary Gland:

a. Anterior Pituitary:
The Anterior lobe of the pituitary gland produces a number of hormones which
control the activities of all other endocrine glands.

Anterior pituitary gland-secretes six hormones as follows:

1. Growth Hormone (GH)/ Somatotropic hormone.

2. Thyrotrophic Hormone/ Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

3. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

4. Follicle -stimulating Hormone (FSH)

5. Luteinising Hormone (LH)

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6. Luteotrophin Hormone /Prolactin.

1. Growth Hormone:
This is also known as somato tropic hormone. This hormone is necessary for the
normal growth and development of the body.

Some of the other factors that increase the secretion of growth

hormone are:
i. Increase in amino acids in circulation.
ii. Hypoglycemia.
iii. Exercise.
iv. At puberty

The factors which inhibit the GH secretion are:

i. Glucose increase.
ii. Cortisol.
iii. Obesity.

2. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone:

This hormone is also known as Thyrotrophic Hormone. It regulates the synthesis
of thyroid hormone in the thyroid gland. It controls the activities and growth of
thyroid gland.

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3. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone:
This hormone stimulates the adrenal cortex to synthesize its hormones. It also
regulates the activities of Adrenal glands.

4. Follicle Stimulating Hormone:

It stimulates the ovary in females to synthesize oestrogen. It also stimulates the
testes in males to provide spermatozoa.

5. Luteinising Hormone:
It controls the secretion of oestrogens and progesterone in the ovary and
testoterone in the testis.

6. Luteotrophin Hormone:
The other name of this hormone is prolactin. It stimulates milk production and
secretion in mammals. It also maintains the uterine growth and development
during pregnancy.

b. Posterior Pituitary:
The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland secretes two hormones:
1. Oxytocin

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2. Vasopressin /Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

1. Oxytocin:
This hormone has got two functions:
1. It contracts the uterus during delivery or birth of the child.

2. It also helps in the ejection of milk from the mammary gland.

2. Vasopressin/ Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH):

This hormone is also known as Antidiuretic hormone.

Its functions are:

1. It helps in decreasing urine output by increasing tubular reabsorption in the
kidney. In diabetes, it diminishes the amount of urine, in which a large amount of
clear urine without sugar is passed.

2. Increasing blood pressure by constricting capillaries and arterioles is another

function of the hormone vasopressin.

Essay # 3. Thyroid Gland:

The thyroid gland is situated in the lower part of the neck and extended on both
side of the Larynx. It is brownish red in colour. There are two lobes in thyroid
gland, one on each side of the trachea.

Function:
The thyroid gland synthesizes and secretes two hormones:
1. Thyroxine (T4)

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2. Trilodothyronine (T3)

The secretion of thyroid hormones is controlled by Thyroid stimulating Hormone

(TSH) of Anterior Pituitary Gland. The thyroid hormones influence growth and
metabolism.

The major functions are:

1. Increase in oxygen consumption and heat production in tissues.

2. Regulation of Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR).

3. Increase in the absorption and utilization of glucose.

4. Helps in physical and mental growth and development of the body.

5. Increase in the rate of cholesterol synthesis in liver.

6. Helps in Protein synthesis.

7. Myelination of central Nervous system.

8. Decrease blood calcium level.

9. Acts as the storage of iodine as thyroxine is rich in iodine.

Disorders of Thyroid Function:

There may be two types of disorders of thyroid functions:
1. Hypothyroidism (Deficiency of the secretion):
(a) Deficiency of the secretion of the gland at birth produces a condition known as
cretinism. It occurs due to intrauterine thyroid deficiency. It produces mental
retardation.

(b) Endemic goitre occurs due to deficiency of iodine in food. It produces

enlargement of the thyroid gland.

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2. Hyperthyroidism (Increased secretion):

(a) The metabolic rate is raised and the body temperature may be higher than
normal.

(b) Loss of weight, nervousness, high pulse rate, Cardiovascular symptoms may
arise which can lead to heart failure.

(c) Grave’s disease or exophthalmic goiter is due to excessive production of

thyroid hormone which produce protrusion of eyeballs.

Essay # 4. Suprarenal or Adrenal Glands:

The adrenal or suprarenal glands are two in number, which are situated just on
the top of each kidney like a cap. These are small yellowish glands. Each adrenal
weighs about 5 gms. This gland is called the gland of emergency.

Structure:

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The adrenal glands can be divided into two parts, whose structure and functions
are also different.

These are:
1. Outer Cortex

2. Inner Medulla

1. Outer Adrenal Cortex:

It is yellowish in colour. This part has three distinct layers of cells.

Functions of Hormones of Cortex:

The functions of these hormones are as follow:
a. Mineralo Corticoids:
These are aldosterone. They influence water and mineral metabolism. They help
to maintain electrolyte and water balance of the body by increasing the
reabsorption of sodium in the renal tubule.

b. Glucocorticoids:
These are Cortisol, cortisone and corticosterone.

Their functions are:

1. Influence Carbohydrate metabolism

2. Increase Glycogen Synthesis.

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c. Sex Steroids:
They are androgens in males and oestrogenes in females. They influence growth
and sex development. The secretion of the hormones of the adrenal cortex is
controlled by Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) of Anterior Pituitary Gland.

2. Adrenal Medulla:
This is the inner part of Adrenal glands. It secretes adrenaline and non adrenaline
hormones.

Functions of Adrenalin Hormone:

1. Increases the rate and force of heart beat.

2. This hormone acts as the resource of the body in an emergency by which one
can fight and escape from an enemy. In a emergency or in emotions this hormone
is carried round the body through blood stream and affects different organs in
different ways.

3. The secretion acts as a chemical whip to awaken all the organs for increased
activity to meet the danger.

4. It helps constriction of skin and blood capillaries, dilation of arteries of heart

and skeletal muscles’.

5. The energy level of the body is increased by this hormone as it raises blood
glucose.

6. Helps in dilation of the pupil of the eyes.

7. Relaxation of the intestine can be possible by this hormone.

Functions of Non-Adrenalin Hormone:

1. Helps in constriction of small arteries.

2. Increase the Blood Pressure.

In times of emergency like shock, fear, anger, danger, the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nerves stimulate the adrenal medulla, so that large amount of
adrenalin and non-adrenaline hormones are secreted which make immediate
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physiological adjustment. Therefore suprarenal glands are called as “emergency
glands.”

Essay # 5. Pancreas:
The Pancreas lies under the stomach in front of the abdominal aorta. It extends
between the C-shaped curvature of the Duodenum. It performs both exocrine and
endocrine functions. As an exocrine gland, pancreatic juice is secreted from the
secretory cells “acini” which helps in the digestion of food. The endocrine part is
called “Islets of Langerhans.”

The Islets are present mostly in the tail portion of pancreas. There are one to two
million islets in the pancreas. The islets contain three major types of cells, the
alpha, beta and delta cells.

1. Alpha cells from 25% of the islets which secrete the hormone glucagon.

2. Beta cells constitute 60% and secrete insulin hormone.

3. Delta cells from 10% of endocrine tissues and secrete somatostatin hormone.

Functions of Hormones:
i. Glucagon:
1. It increases the blood sugar level by breaking down glycogen in the liver to
glucose.

2. It helps in mobilization of stored fat.

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3. It releases insulin from pancreas.

ii. Insulin:
1. It decreases the level of glucose.

2. It promotes formation of glycogen from glucose in the liver and muscles.

3. It prevents fresh synthesis of glucose.

4. Stimulates the utilization of glucose in the skeletel muscle.

5. Converts glucose into fat in the adipose tissue.

iii. Somatostatin:
1. It prohibits secretion of insulin and glucagon from the islets.

2. Decreases secretion and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract.

3. Slows down the assimilation of food from intestine.

Decrease in the synthesis of insulin or any type of disorder gives rise to the
disease Diabetes.

Essay # 6. Sex Glands:

The Sex glands are:
1. Ovaries in the female which secretes oestrogen and progesterone.

2. Testes in the male which secretes Testosterone.

Production of these internal secretions are regulated by the Anterior Pituitary

Hormones. During childhood, small amount of these hormones are secreted. But
at puberty the output of these hormones increases, causing rapid development of
sex characteristics.

Functions of the Hormones:

Oestrogen:
It is the female sex hormones secreted by the ovaries.

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Its functions are:
1. Regulation of menstrual cycle.

2. Development of secondary sex characteristics.

3. Development of Mamary Glands.

4. High pitched voice.

5. Deposition of subcutaneous tissue.

6. Growth of hairs in pubic region.

7. Influences the growth and development of fallopian tubes.

8. It influences behavioural and psychological patterns in females. The secretion

of oestrogen is controlled by follicle stimulating hormone of Anterior Pituitary
Gland.

Progesterone:
It is a female sex hormones and its functions are as follows:
1. Menstruation and development of uterus and breast.

2. Preparation of the uterus to receive the fertilized ovum.

3. During pregnancy, this hormone stimulates growth of mammary glands.

Progesterone is called as the “Hormone of Pregnancy” because, once conceived, it

helps maintain the thick vascular lining of the uterus for the growth of the fetus.

Testosterone:
This hormone is secreted from the male sex organ Testes.

The important functions are:

1. Stimulation of spermatogenesis.

2. Promotes growth and activity of prostate, penis and scrotum.

3. Development of secondary sex characteristics like moustache, harsh voice.

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4. It enhances skeletal and muscular growth.

Essay # 7. Thymus:
Thymus gland is present in the upper chest cavity on the trachea. It is partly an
endocrine gland and partly lymphoid structure. It lies behind the sternum but in
front of the heart. It is pink in colour and is consisting of two lobes in which a
number of lobules are there.

Functions:
The hormone secreted is thymosin.

Its functions are as follows:

1. It controls the production of lymphocytes.

2. Regulates transmission of minerals in bones.

3. It plays some role in sexual development.

Essay # 8. Pineal Gland:

It is a small greyish -red gland situated in the roof of the brain. It is covered by
corpus collosum and cerebral hemispheres. The shape of this gland is like a pine
cone. It weighs about 150 mg.

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Functions:
Pineal gland secretes several hormones including melatonin and serotonin.

The functions are:

1. The pineal gland appears to function as a biological clock.

2. It influences the release of Gonadotropic hormones from Anterior Pituitary

Gland.

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