3.

0 POLLINATION IN ANGIOSPERMA PLANT

3.2 TYPE OF POLLINATION IN ANGIOSPERMA PLANT

Animal and insect

Self

Wind
Pollination

Water

Pollination occurs in several ways. People can transfer pollen from one flower to another, but most plants are pollinated without any help from people. Usually plants rely on animals or the wind to pollinate them. When animals such as bees, butterflies, moths, flies, and hummingbirds pollinate plants, it's accidental. They are not trying to pollinate the plant. Usually they are at the plant to get food, the sticky pollen or sweet nectar made at the base of the petals. When feeding, the animals accidentally rub against the stamens and get pollen stuck all over themselves. When they move to another flower to feed, some of the pollen can rub off onto this new plant's stigma. Plants that are pollinated by animals often are brightly colored and have a strong smell to attract the animal pollinators. Another way plants are pollinated is by the wind. The wind picks up pollen from one plant and blows it onto another. Plants that are pollinated by wind often have long stamens and pistils. Since they do not need to attract animal pollinators, they can be dully colored, unscented, and with small or no petals since no insect needs to land on them.

3.3 WIND POLLINATION Wind pollination or anemophily is a form of pollination whereby pollen is distributed by wind. This type of flowering plant species do not develop scented flowers, nor do they produce nectar. This distinguishes them from flowering plant that distributed by the animal or insect. Male and female reproductive organs are generally found in separate flowers, the male flowers having a number of long filaments terminating in exposed stamens, and the female flowers having long, feather-like stigmas.Pollen from wind pollinated plants tends to be smaller and lighter in weight than pollen from other types of pollination, with very low nutritional value to insects

Figure 1.0 shows the light and small pollen of wind pollinated flower

The characteristic of wind pollinated plant are production and release of large numbers of grains, both anthers and stigma exposed, grains falling within a certain size range, very small grains will be dispersed readily but cannot be captured efficiently by the stigma, the stigma should present much surface area to capture grains, but, since collection efficiency will decrease with increasing stigma diameter, flowering must be closely coordinated by relatively unambiguous environmental stimuli. The geography of wind pollination in the angiosperms can be understood best in terms of these prerequisites for efficient transport of pollen. Wind pollinated plant is very infrequent in the tropical rain forest, becomes more frequent as one moves to more
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seasonally variable environments, and is frequent in northern temperate forests. The environment of the tropical rain forest is unsuitable for wind pollination plant such as species diversity is very high, hence individuals of the same species are suitable to be widely spaced the forest is densely structured, hence wind velocities are low and there are many obstacles to transport, there is no leafless season, rainfall is frequent throughout the year, hence transport will be limited, there are few unambiguous stimuli which can coordinate flowering potential animal pollinators are abundant.

3.4 ANIMAL AND INSECT POLLINATION In general, pollination by insects and other animals is more efficient than pollination by wind. Typically, pollination benefits the animal pollinator by providing it with nectar, and benefits the plant by providing a direct transfer of pollen from one plant to the pistil of another plant. Angiosperm flowers are often highly adapted for pollination by insect and other animals. Animal pollinators play a crucial role in flowering plant reproduction and in the production of most fruits and vegetables. Most plants require the assistance of pollinators to produce seeds and fruit. About 80% of all flowering plants and over threequarters of the staple crop plants that feed humankind rely on animal pollinators. Pollinators visit flowers in search of food, mates, shelter and nest-building materials. The energy that powers pollinator growth, metamorphosis, flight and reproduction comes from sugars in nectar, and the proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals from pollen grains.

Figure 2.0 is showing the pollen is stick onto the bee so that the pollination occurs

Some flowers have a very strong odor, but are very dark in color. These flowers are often pollinated by bats, which have very poor vision, are often active during the night, and have a very well developed sense of smell. The flowers of many species of plants are marked with special ultraviolet absorbing pigments (flavonoids), which appear to direct the pollinator toward the pollen and nectar. These pigments are invisible to humans and most animals, but bees' eyes have special ultraviolet photoreceptors which enable the bees to detect patterns and so pollinate these flowers.

Figure 3.0 shows the bright and attracting colour of the flower draw the animal and insect towards the flower

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Figure 4.0 Helianthus divaricatus flowers have very bright colour

Pollen is a fine to coarse powder containing the microgametophytes of seed plants, which produce the male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat that protects the sperm cells during the process of their movement between the stamens to the pistil of flowering plants or from the male cone to the female cone of coniferous plants. When pollen lands on a compatible pistil of flowering plants, it germinates and produces a pollen tube that transfers the sperm to the ovule of a receptive ovary. The individual pollen grains are small enough to require magnification to see detail. Nectar is produced by a plant not as an energy or nutrient source for the plant itself, but rather for consumption by various nectarivores (nectar-eating animals, such as insects, birds, mammals, and lizards). Thus, while nectar-producing plant species are advancing their own survival and reproduction, they also are contributing something of value to others. In turn, many of these benefiting animals provide a benefit for the plant species, reflecting a sense of unity and harmony in nature.

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The pistil, a long stalk arising in the center, is the female reproductive organ of a flower. It is composed of the stigma, style, and ovary. The stigma is the sticky knob at the outer end of the stalk. The style is the portion of the stalk connecting the stigma to the ovary. The ovary is the round base that contains one or more undeveloped seeds called ovules. In each ovule is an egg waiting to be fertilized by a sperm. Stamens, the male reproductive organs, also arise from the center of the flower and encircle the pistil. The stamens are composed of a stalk, called a filament, topped by an anther. The anther produces many microscopic pollen grains. The male sex cell, a sperm, develops within each pollen grain. Petals, the often-brightly colored portion surrounding the pistil and stamens, are a flower's showpiece. They attract the attention of passing insects, birds, and people. The layers of petals in a flower comprise the corolla. Sepals lie below the petals and are usually green and leaflike in appearance. Sepals form a temporary, protective cover over an unopened flower. When the petals of a flower are ready to unfurl, the sepals fold back.

3.5 SELF POLLINATION

Self-pollination also occurs among angiosperms, particularly in temperate regions. Most of the self-pollinating plants have small, relatively inconspicuous flowers that shed pollen directly onto the stigma, sometimes even before the bud opens.

Self-pollination

obviously

is

ecologically

advantageous

under

certain

circumstances because self pollinators do not need to be visited by animals to produce seed. As a result, self-pollinated plants expend less energy in the production of pollinator attractants and can grow in areas where the kinds of insects or other animals that might visit them are absent or very scarce as in the Arctic or at high elevations.

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Figure 5.0 shows how the self pollination occurs in the angiosperm plant

Often flowers contain both stamens and pistils, which increases the likelihood of self-pollination. One strategy to promote out crossing is to separate stamens and pistils. In various species of flowering plants for example, willows and some mulberries staminate and pistillate flowers may occur on separate plants. Such plants, which produce only ovules or only pollen, are called dioecious, from the Greek words for two houses. Obviously, they cannot self-pollinate and must rely exclusively on outcrossing. In other kinds of plants, such as oaks, birches, corn (maize), and pumpkins, separate male and female flowers may both be produced on the same plant. Such plants are called monoecious, meaning one house (figure 42.14). In monoecious plants, the separation of pistillate and staminate flowers, which may mature at different times, greatly enhances the probability of out crossing.

Even if, as usually is the case, functional stamens and pistils are both present in each flower of a particular plant species, these organs may reach maturity at different times. Plants in which this occurs are called dichogamous. If the stamens mature first,
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Figure 6.0 shows Drosera Omissa flower. This species produces seed when self pollinated

shedding their pollen before the stigmas are receptive, the flower is effectively staminate at that time. Once the stamens have finished shedding pollen, the stigma or stigmas may then become receptive, and the flower may become essentially pistillate. This has the same effect as if the flower completely lacked either functional stamens or functional pistils; its out crossing rate is thereby significantly increased.

3.6 WATER POLLINATION Hydrophily is a fairly uncommon form of pollination whereby pollen is distributed by the flow of waters, particularly in rivers and streams. The pollen may be transported on the water surface, as in tasselweeds (Ruppia) and water starworts (Callitriche), in which case it needs to be light enough to float and water repellent and the stigmas must be exposed at the water surface. Movement of such pollen grains may be enhanced by a natural outer coating of oil, which alters the surface tension of the water. In tape grass (Vallisneria spiralis) the whole male flower is released and attaches itself to the female flower at the surface of the water.

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Figure 7.0 shows lotus plant which is plant pollinated by water

Pollen may also be transported through water. The mechanisms for this are very variable and are thought to be derived from entomophilic mechanisms. In naiads pollen grains are heavy and sink due to gravity onto the female flowers underneath. In eel grasses (Zostera) pollen grains transform into structures that resemble a pollen tube, which wrap themselves around the stigma.

Figure 8.0 shows the pollen was transferred by water (surface)

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