1.3 Constructivism 1.3.

1 History Constructivism is a philosophy that views knowledge as something each of us creates, rather than something that exists in the physical world. Perhaps the best way to understand it is to describe how it evolved from other learning theories in the 20th century. In the early part of the 20th century, behaviorism dominated educational theories and research. Behaviorists held that the scientific study of psychology must restrict itself to the study of observable behaviors. Behaviorists viewed learning as a process of stimulating learners to behave differently. It was when learners demonstrated new behaviors that learning could assume to have occurred. The limitation of behaviorism is that it did nothing to address what happened inside learners' minds. In response to this limitation, cognitive psychology emerged in the 1950s. Cognitive were concerned not so much with behavioral responses, but rather with how people learned. The mental processes involved in learning were, and continue to be, the focus of most cognitive research. Constructivism takes the cognitive focus on the mind one step further. According to constructivists, knowledge is something each person "constructs," based on personal experiences. Reality is different for each person. Education, therefore, is never a matter of teaching one objective "truth," it is a matter of helping people arrive at their own personal constructions of reality. In contrast to both behaviorism and early cognitive, constructivism is not an objectivist theory in which "truth" is viewed as external to the learner, and the mind acts to process input from reality. The challenge posed by constructivism is that it presents a new view of how reality is perceived, and implies entirely new roles for teachers and students alike.

1.3.1.1 Types of Constructivism

There are two types of constructivism which is cognitive constructivism and social constructivism.

1.3.1.1.1 Cognitive Constructivism

Dissatisfaction with behaviorisms strict focus on observable behavior led educational psychologists such as Jean Piaget and William Perry to demand an approach to learning theory that paid more attention to what went on inside the learners head. They developed a cognitive approach that focused on mental processes rather than observable behavior. Common to most cognitivist approaches is the idea that knowledge comprises symbolic mental representations, such as propositions and images, together with a mechanism that operates on those representations. Knowledge is seen as something that is actively constructed by learners based on their existing cognitive structures. Therefore, it is relative to their stage of cognitive development; understanding the learner's existing intellectual framework is central to understanding the learning process. Knowledge Behaviorists maintain that knowledge is a passively absorbed behavioral repertoire. Cognitive constructivists reject that claim, arguing instead that knowledge is actively constructed by learners and that any account of knowledge makes essential references to cognitive structures. Knowledge comprises active systems of intentional mental representations derived from past learning experiences. Each learner interprets experiences and information in the light of their extant knowledge, their stage of cognitive development, their cultural background, their personal history, and so forth. Learners use these factors to organize their experience and to select and transform new information. Knowledge is therefore actively constructed by the learner rather than passively absorbed; it is essentially dependent on the standpoint from which the learner approaches it. Learning

Because knowledge is actively constructed, learning is presented as a process of active discovery. The role of the instructor is not to drill knowledge into students through consistent repetition, or to goad them into learning through carefully employed rewards and punishments. Rather, the role of the teacher is to facilitate discovery by providing the necessary resources and by guiding learners as they attempt to assimilate new knowledge to old and to modify the old to accommodate the new. Teachers must thus take into account the knowledge that the learner currently possesses when deciding how to construct the curriculum and to present, sequence, and structure new material. Motivation Unlike behaviorist learning theory, where learners are thought to be motivated by extrinsic factors such as rewards and punishment, cognitive learning theory sees motivation as largely intrinsic. Because it involves significant restructuring of existing cognitive structures, successful learning requires a major personal investment on the part of the learner (Perry, 1999, 54). Learners must face up to the limitations of their existing knowledge and accept the need to modify or abandon existing beliefs. Without some kind of internal drive on the part of the learner to do so, external rewards and punishments such as grades are unlikely to be sufficient. Instruction Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their existing intellectual framework to accommodate that information. Thus, while cognitivists allow for the use of skill and drill exercises in the memorization of facts, formulae, and lists, they place greater importance on strategies that help students to actively assimilate and accommodate new material. For instance, asking students to explain new material in their own words can assist them in assimilating it by forcing them to reexpress the new ideas in their existing vocabulary. Likewise, providing students with sets of questions to structure their reading makes it easier for them to relate it to previous material by highlighting certain parts and to accommodate the new material by providing a clear organizational structure.

Because learning is largely self-motivated in the cognitivist framework, cognitivists such as A. L. Brown and J. D. Ferrara have also suggested methods which require students to monitor their own learning. For instance, the use of ungraded tests and study questions enables students to monitor their own understanding of the material. Other methods that have been suggested include the use of learning journals by students to monitor progress and highlight any recurring difficulties, and to analyze study habits.

1.3.1.1.1.1 Social Constructivism

Social constructivism is a variety of cognitive constructivism that emphasizes the collaborative nature of much learning. Social constructivism was developed by postrevolutionary Soviet psychologist, Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky was a cognitivist, but rejected the assumption made by cognitivists such as Piaget and Perry that it was possible to separate learning from its social context. He argued that all cognitive functions originate in, and must therefore be explained as products of social interactions and that learning was not simply the assimilation and accommodation of new knowledge by learners; it was the process by which learners were integrated into a knowledge community. According to Vygotsky (1978, 57), Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level and, later on, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals. Vygotskys theory of social learning has been expanded upon by contemporary psychologists such as Miller and Dollard, and A. Bandura. Knowledge Cognitivists such as Piaget and Perry see knowledge as actively constructed by learners in response to interactions with environmental stimuli. Vygotsky emphasized the role of language and culture in cognitive development. According to Vygotsky, language and culture play essential roles both in human intellectual development and in

how humans perceive the worlds. Humans linguistic abilities enable them to overcome the natural limitations of their perceptual field by imposing culturally defined sense and meaning on the world. Language and culture are the frameworks through which humans experience, communicate, and understand reality. Vygotsky states (39), A special feature of human perceptionis the perception of real objects I do not see the world simply in color and shape but also as a world with sense and meaning. I do not merely see something round and black with two hands; I see a clock Language and the conceptual schemes that are transmitted by means of langage are essentially social phenomena. As a result, human cognitive structures are, Vygotsky believed, essentially socially constructed. Knowledge is not simply constructed, it is coconstructed. Learning Vygotsky accepted Piagets claim that learners respond not to external stimuli but to their interpretation of those stimuli. However, he argued that cognitivists such as Piaget had overlooked the essentially social nature of language. As a result, he claimed they had failed to understand that learning is a collaborative process. Vygotsky distinguished between two developmental levels (85): The level of actual development is the level of development that the learner has already reached, and is the level at which the learner is capable of solving problems independently. The level of potential development (the zone of proximal development) is the level of development that the learner is capable of reaching under the guidance of teachers or in collaboration with peers. The learner is capable of solving problems and understanding material at this level that they are not capable of solving or understanding at their level of actual development. The level of potential development is the level at which learning takes place. It comprises cognitive structures that are still in the process of maturing, but which can only mature under the guidance of or in collaboration with others.

Motivation Behavioral motivation is essentially extrinsic--a reaction to positive and negative reinforcements. Cognitive motivation is essentially intrinsic--based on the learner's internal drive. Social constructivists see motivation as both extrinsic and intrinsic. Because learning is essentially a social phenomenon, learners are partially motivated by rewards provided by the knowledge community. However, because knowledge is actively constructed by the learner, learning also depends to a significant extent on the learner's internal drive to understand and promote the learning process. Instruction Collaborative learning methods require learners to develop teamwork skills and to see individual learning as essentially related to the success of group learning. The optimal size for group learning is four or five people. Since the average section size is ten to fifteen people, collaborative learning methods often require GSIs to break students into smaller groups, although discussion sections are essentially collaborative learning environments. For instance, in group investigations, students may be split into groups that are then required to choose and research a topic from a limited area. They are then held responsible for researching the topic and presenting their findings to the class. More generally, collaborative learning should be seen as a process of peer interaction that is mediated and structured by the teacher. Discussion can be promoted by the presentation of specific concepts, problems or scenarios, and is guided by means of effectively directed questions, the introduction and clarification of concepts and information, and references to previously learned material. Some more specific techniques are suggested in the Teaching Guide pages on Discussion Sections. 1.3.2 Important People in the Behaviour of the Theory of Constructivism Many learning theories have been developed throughout the years that attempt to explain how people modify their behavior based on experiences. Behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism are the three main categories of learning theories. Behaviorism focuses on the learning of observable behaviors or responses and considers learning to be a change in behavior rather than a mental change. Cognitivism

looks beyond behavior and focuses on the thought processes involved in learning. Constructivism explains how learning involves building, or constructing, concepts and knowledge rather than just absorbing information from the outside world (Ormrod, 2009). According to the theory of constructivism, learners are not simply given knowledge by a teacher. Learning is an active, constructive process in which students build knowledge for themselves based on prior experiences. As people take in new information, old ideas are modified and new ideas are created. Each person develops their own rule models to understand what is happening around them. Learners build upon what they already know and add to their prior knowledge, or schema (Gray, 2007). This contrasts the old idea of tabula rasa because learners bring their past knowledge and experiences to each new situation that they encounter (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2009). Learners work actively to organize and make sense of new information in a way that modifies their knowledge from previous experiences (Ormrod, 2009). There are two types of constructivism: individual constructivism and social constructivism. In the first type, the construction process occurs individually within each learner. The latter type focuses on how people work together to combine their knowledge and create a deeper understanding in a way that they could not do on their own. Both of these methods can be useful teaching strategies in the classroom because they encourage students to think creatively and use problem-solving skills (Ormrod, 2009). The ideas of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotski formed the origins of constructivism. Vygotski's Social Development Theory has three main themes that relate to the current view of constructivism. First, he believed that social interaction is important for cognitive development. Children develop first on the social level and then on the individual level. The second aspect of his theory is the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD, the zone where learning occurs, is defined as the distance between what a child is able to do on their own compared to the tasks a child is capable of completing with the help of a more knowledgeable other. A more knowledgeable other is a person who has a

better understanding of a concept than the child. In the classroom, teachers or peers can serve as more knowledgeable others. Vygotsky's theory promotes interactive learning where teachers and students collaborate to facilitate learning for all students (Social Development Theory, 2009). Piaget observed his children as they grew and made sense of the world. From his observations, he developed the State Theory of Cognitive Development which explains the four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, and formal. In the sensorimotor stage, the infant learns through interactions with his environment. Assimilation occurs in which the infant deals with new objects by absorbing them into existing schema. If the object cannot be assimilated, accommodation occurs when the infant's schemata are changed to include the new object or event. In the preoperational stage, the child classifies objects by important features because he cannot yet think in abstract ways. The concrete operations stage is when the child begins to think abstractly and logically. By the time they reach the formal operations stage, children are capable of using deductive and hypothetical reasoning to think abstractly (Ormrod, 2009). Constructivist ideas are working their way into many current classrooms. Teachers act as facilitators and create student centered activities that promote problem solving and group work. Students are encouraged to take risks and create their own hypotheses (Gray, 2007). By formulating their own questions, students are likely to become more interested and motivated in learning. Hands-on experiments are useful because they allow students to try many possible solutions and learn from the ones that do not work as well as the correct one. Students collaborate in order to construct new knowledge from their peers' previous experiences rather than just their own (Educational Broadcasting Corporation, 2004). Case-based learning is an instructional method based in constructivism. In casebased learning, the instructor provides a narrative or story of a potential problem to the students. Students then engage in discussion about the case to "analyze, propose solutions, evaluate potential solutions, solve problems or make decisions" (Blackmond, 2007). Cases can be used as the primary method of instruction or they can be used

after a lecture to increase students' deep thinking about the material. A well-written case will focus on an issue that arouses interest, clearly state the problem, and force decision-making. The teacher should ask questions that encourage deeper thinking while trying not to direct the conversation. Case-based learning can be used in a wide variety of settings, from asking second year medical students to diagnose a patient with an unusual list of symptoms to an eighth grade math class in which students are asked to use their geometry skills to design a miniature golf course. A major advantage of case-based learning is that the skills developed in the classroom will transfer more easily to real world settings because they are being applied in a similar way. Casebased learning can be used for student assessment by creating a rubric that states what is expected from each student throughout the discussion. Case-based learning helps learners to improve their thinking abilities and to better understand the course content (Blackmond, 2007). The Adventures of Jasper Woodbury series is a good example of case-based learning. Students watch a 20 minute video that presents a believable story and ends with a math problem-solving challenge. Students then work in groups to come up with a solution based on the information provided in the video. Teachers encourage thought and problem-solving in each group but do not direct the conversation. These videos are useful because they show students that information learned in school is useful when applied to real life problems. The constructivist learning theory can be applied outside of the classroom when teaching an activity such as horseback riding. The instructor can explain what the rider needs to do, but the rider will have a difficult time understanding the directions until they are given the opportunity to attempt it their own. Riding skills build upon one another. For example, a rider must be able to balance at a walk before they can begin trotting or jumping. Social constructivism can be applied in group lessons by asking one rider to stand in the center of the arena and be the instructor. This gives them the opportunity to observe for themselves what mistakes actually look like while giving corrective feedback to improve the skills of the other riders.

Ayn Rand's learning theory of objectivism opposes the theory of constructivism. In support of her theory, Rand said, "Reality, the external world, existsindependent of any observer's knowledge, beliefs, feelings, desires or fears. This means that A is A, that facts are facts, that things are what they are - and that the task of man's consciousness is to perceive reality, not to create or invent it" (Hoehnke, 2003). Objectivists believe that experiences only play a small role in creating models of the world because knowledge exists independently from the learner. According to the theory, meaning and experience are separate from one another. The aim of objectivist learning is to "acquire knowledge of objects, their characteristics, and interactions" (Hoehnke, 2003). Objectivist learning principles can be observed in traditional classrooms. The knowledgeable teacher stands in front of the less knowledgeable class and presents information, usually in the form of a lecture. The teacher is active while the students sit passively and do not interact with one another to construct meaning from the information being presented. Learning happens through repetition. Material is presented one by one in units of increasing difficulty. Students are periodically tested on information the teacher believes they should know. A major problem with traditional teaching methods is that students are using mechanical skills such as "imitation, obedience, repetition, and control," rather than using their creative abilities that allows them to incorporate new information into their current knowledge base (Hoehnke,2003). In contrast to traditional classrooms, constructivist classrooms are more productive learning environments because students are more engaged in the material. Learners are allowed to define the goals within the lesson rather than having content defined by the teacher. In a constructivist classroom, students are intrinsically motivated to learn instead of being extrinsically motivated by the teacher as they would be in a traditional classroom. This makes students more likely to learn for long-term success rather than simply storing it in short-term memory to pass a test. Since not all students are able to learn at the same speed, constructivist teachers allow learners to construct their own methods to break down and process the lesson content. Constructivist classrooms also allow students to work in groups in which they work together to discuss

and interpret material that they may not have been able to understand on their own. The problem solving skills that are learned in one class transfer to the rest of the students' classes (Burr, 2003). While traditional teaching methods are effective for the first four levels of Bloom's taxonomy (knowledge, comprehension, application, and analysis), constructivism is better suited to the higher levels of learning: synthesis and evaluation (Ormrod, 2009). 1.3.3 The Important of Constructivism Educational curricula and teaching methods are changing. One component of the current redevelopment of all subject area curricula is the change in focus of instruction from the transmission curriculum to a transactional curriculum. In a traditional curriculum, a teacher transmits information to students who passively listen and acquire facts. In a transactional curriculum, students are actively involved in their learning to reach new understandings. Constructivist teaching fosters critical thinking and creates active and motivated learners. Zemelman, Daniels, and Hyde (1993) tell us that learning in all subject areas involves inventing and constructing new ideas. They suggest that constructivist theory be incorporated into the curriculum, and advocate that teachers create environments in which children can construct their own understandings. Twomey Fosnot (1989) recommends that a constructivist approach be used to create learners who are autonomous, inquisitive thinkers who question, investigate, and reason. A constructivist approach frees teachers to make decisions that will enhance and enrich students' development" in these areas. These are goals that are consistent with those stated by Saskatchewan Education in the 1984 government report, Directions, which launched the restructuring of Saskatchewan's curricula. This demonstrates that constructivism is evident in current educational change.