1.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (BANDURA)

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory posts that people learn from one another, via
observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge
between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention,
memory, and motivation.

CONTRIBUTORS

 Albert Bandura (1925 – Present)

KEY CONCEPTS
People learn through observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those
behaviors. “Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from
observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later
occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.” (Bandura). Social
learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction
between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.

NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE MODELING

Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes
distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. One’s
characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past
reinforcement) affect attention.
Retention — remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental
images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal
Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-
observation of reproduction.
Motivation — having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as past (i.e.
traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and
recalling the reinforced model)

2. DISCOVERY LEARNING (JEROME BRUNER)

Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction, discovery learning believes
that it is best for learners to discover facts and relationships for themselves.

CONTRIBUTORS

 Jerome Bruner (1915 – )

KEY CONCEPTS
Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in
problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience
and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned.
Students interact with the world by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with
questions and controversies, or performing experiments.
As a result, students may be more likely to remember concepts and knowledge
discovered on their own (in contrast to a transmissionist model). Models that are based
upon discovery learning model include: guided discovery, problem-based learning,
simulation-based learning, case-based learning, incidental learning, among others.

3. Learning through Experience (john Dewey)

The Views of John Dewey

John Dewey is probably most famous for his role in what is called progressive
education. Progressive education is essentially a view of education that
emphasizes the need to learn by doing. Dewey believed that human beings learn
through a 'hands-on' approach. This places Dewey in the educational philosophy
of pragmatism.

Pragmatists believe that reality must be experienced. From Dewey's educational

point of view, this means that students must interact with their environment in
order to adapt and learn. Dewey felt the same idea was true for teachers and
that teachers and students must learn together. His view of the classroom was
deeply rooted in democratic ideals, which promoted equal voice among all
participants in the learning experience.

4. Cognitivist (Jean Piaget)

Jean Piaget in Ann Arbor
Piaget's theory of cognitive development is a comprehensive theory about the nature
and development of human intelligence. It was first created by the Swiss developmental
psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980). The theory deals with the nature of
knowledge itself and how humans gradually come to acquire, construct, and use it.
[1]
 Piaget's theory is mainly known as a developmental stage theory.
To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes
resulting from biological maturation and environmental experience. He believed that
children construct an understanding of the world around them, experience
discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their
environment, then adjust their ideas accordingly. [2] Moreover, Piaget claimed that
cognitive development is at the center of the human organism, and language is
contingent on knowledge and understanding acquired through cognitive development.
[3]
 Piaget's earlier work received the greatest attention.
Child-centered classrooms and "open education" are direct applications of Piaget's
views.[4] Despite its huge success, Piaget's theory has some limitations that Piaget
recognized himself: for example, the theory supports sharp stages rather than
continuous development (horizontal and vertical décalage).[5]
Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a
mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait,
and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological
maturation and interaction with the environment.

Stages of Development
Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development which reflect the increasing
sophistication of children's thought:

1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2)

2. Pre-operational stage (from age 2 to age 7)

3. Concrete operational stage (from age 7 to age 11)

4. Formal operational stage (age 11+ - adolescence and adulthood).

5. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of human learning describes learning as a social

process and the origination of human intelligence in society or culture. The major theme
of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in
the development of cognition. Vygotsky believed everything is learned on two levels.
First, through interaction with others, and then integrated into the individual’s mental
structure. Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the
social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological)
and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention,
to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as
actual relationships between individuals. (Vygotsky, 1978, p.57) A second aspect of
Vygotsky’s theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development is limited to a
"zone of proximal development" (ZPD). This "zone" is the area of exploration for which
the student is cognitively prepared, but requires help and social interaction to fully
develop (Briner, 1999). A teacher or more experienced peer is able to provide the
learner with "scaffolding" to support the student’s evolving understanding of knowledge
domains or development of complex skills. Collaborative learning, discourse, modelling,
and scaffolding are strategies for supporting the intellectual knowledge and skills of
learners and facilitating intentional learning.
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist who lived during the
Russian Revolution, developed a theory of development known as the
Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development in the early twentieth century.

As a proponent of the sociocultural perspective to development, Vygotsky’s

sociocultural theory gained worldwide recognition. It began to exert influence
when his work was finally translated into English in 1962 and the importance
of both sociocultural perspective of development and cross-cultural research
was recognized.

Vygotsky’s main assertion was that children are entrenched in different

sociocultural contexts and their cognitive development is advanced through
social interaction with more skilled individuals. The Vygotsky theory of
cognitive development is mainly concerned with the more complex cognitive
activities of children that are governed and influenced by several principles.
Believing that children construct knowledge actively, Vygotsky’s sociocultural
theory is also one of those responsible for laying the groundwork for
constructivism.
Zone of Proximal Development
Vygotsky is most recognized for his concept of Zone of Proximal Development
or ZPD pertaining to the learning of children. Children who are in the zone of
proximal development for a specific task can almost perform the task
independently, but not quite there yet. However, with an appropriate amount
of assistance, these children can accomplish the task successfully.

The lower limit of a child’s zone of proximal development is the level of

analysis and problem-solving reached by a child without any help. The upper
limit, on the other hand, is the level of additional responsibility that a child can
receive with the support of a skilled instructor.

As children are verbally given instructions or shown how to perform certain

tasks, they organize the new information received in their existing mental
schemas in order to assist them in the ultimate goal of performing the task
independently. This emphasis on the concept of Zone of Proximal
Development made by Vygotsky underscores his conviction that social
influences, particularly instruction, are of immense importance on the
cognitive development of children.

6. Theory of Moral Development

The Theory of Moral Development is a very interesting subject that stemmed from Jean
Piaget’s theory of moral reasoning. Developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg, this
theory made us understand that morality starts from the early childhood years and can
be affected by several factors.
Morality can be developed either negatively or positively, depending on how an
individual accomplishes the tasks before him during each stage of moral development
across his lifespan.

7. Law of effect
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The law of effect is a psychological principle advanced by Edward Thorndike in 1898
on the matter of behavioral conditioning (not then formulated as such) which states that
"responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely
to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect
become less likely to occur again in that situation." [1]
This notion is very similar to that of the evolutionary theory, if a certain character trait
provides an advantage for reproduction then that trait will persist. [2] The terms
"satisfying" and dissatisfying" appearing in the definition of the law of effect were
eventually replaced by the terms "reinforcing" and "punishing," when operant
conditioning became known. "Satisfying" and "dissatisfying" conditions are determined
behaviorally, and they cannot be accurately predicted, because each animal has a
different idea of these two terms than another animal. The new terms, "reinforcing" and
 "punishing" are used differently in psychology than they are colloquially. Something that
reinforces a behavior makes it more likely that that behavior will occur again, and
something that punishes a behavior makes it less likely that behavior will occur again. [3]
Thorndike's law of effect refutes the ideas of the book Animal Intelligence written by
Romanes, stating that anecdotal evidence is weak and is typically not useful. The book
stated that animals, like humans, think things through when dealing with a new
environment or situation. Instead, Thorndike hypothesized that animals, to understand
their physical environment, must physically interact with it using trial and error, until a
successful result is obtained. This is illustrated in his cat experiment, in which a cat is
placed in a shuttlebox and eventually learns, by interacting with the environment of the
box, how to escape.[4]

Edward Thorndike: The Law of Effect

The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggested that:

"responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely
to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect
become less likely to occur again in that situation (Gray, 2011, pp 108–109)."
Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that
lead to the development of operant conditioning within behaviorism.

Whereas classical conditioning depends on developing associations between events,

operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of our behavior.  Skinner
wasn’t the first psychologist to study learning by consequences.  Indeed, Skinner's
theory of operant conditioning is built on the ideas of Edward Thorndike.

Thorndike studied learning in animals (usually cats).  He devised a classic experiment in

which he used a puzzle box (see fig. 1) to empirically test the laws of learning.

8. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (often represented as a pyramid with five levels of needs)
is a motivational theory in psychology that argues that while people aim to meet basic
needs, they seek to meet successively higher needs in the form of a pyramid.

CONTRIBUTORS

 Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970)

KEY CONCEPTS
Abraham H. Maslow felt as though conditioning theories did not adequately capture the
complexity of human behavior. In a 1943 paper called A Theory of Human Motivation,
Maslow presented the idea that human actions are directed toward goal attainment [1].
Any given behavior could satisfy several functions at the same time; for instance, going
to a bar could satisfy one’s needs for self-esteem and for social interaction.

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs has often been represented in a hierarchical pyramid with
five levels. The four levels (lower-order needs) are considered physiological needs,
while the top level of the pyramid is considered growth needs. The lower level needs
must be satisfied before higher-order needs can influence behavior. The levels are as
follows (see pyramid in Figure 1 below).

 Self-actualization – includes morality, creativity, problem solving, etc.

 Esteem – includes confidence, self-esteem, achievement, respect, etc.
 Belongingness – includes love, friendship, intimacy, family, etc.
 Safety – includes security of environment, employment, resources, health,
property, etc.
 Physiological – includes air, food, water, sex, sleep, other factors towards
homeostasis, etc.

9. BF Skinner: Operant Conditioning

Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based
on Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect. According to this principle, behavior that is followed
by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant
consequences is less likely to be repeated.

Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. Behavior which
is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced
tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e., weakened).

Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals

which he placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.

Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior.

• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease
the probability of a behavior being repeated.

• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a

behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.

• Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a

behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

10. Getting Students to Think About Their Thinking

Thinking about thinking. It’s not a new concept and can be linked to higher order
thinking in which a person takes “active control over the cognitive processes engaged in
[their] learning” (Livingston, 1997, para. 1). The process of thinking about one’s own
thinking is often called metacognition, although by definition, metacognition is “cognition
about cognition.”
Background
The historical roots of metacognition first took hold in the 1970s—the concept was
introduced by developmental psychologist John Flavell, whose “work focused on
children’s metamemory” (Baker, 2013, para. 3). Flavell’s definition of metacognition
comprised both knowledge and control of ones cognition, in which knowledge is what a
person knows about how they know and perceive information: Knowing how one learns
best, what the person is supposed to do, and the best ways the person can accomplish
a task (Baker, 2013). The control component considers how the person understands the
process of knowing: The actual plans and strategies used to make progress in learning
something. The process can include a using a specific method to learn a task,
evaluating the progress made, and making changes to accomplish a task if necessary
(Baker, 2013).

11. Universal Stages of development

Erikson’s (1959) theory of psychosocial development has eight distinct stages,

taking in five stages up to the age of 18 years and three further stages beyond,
well into adulthood.

Like Freud and many others, Erik Erikson maintained that personality develops
in a predetermined order, and builds upon each previous stage. This is called the
epigenetic principle.

During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have
a positive or negative outcome for personality development. For Erikson (1963),
these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs
of the individual (i.e. psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e. social).

According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy

personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic
strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.

Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete

further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. 
These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age

1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 - 1½

2. Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1½ - 3

3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-5

4. Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 - 12

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 - 18

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 - 40

Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 - 65

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+