2 Sexual Reproduction
in Flowering Plants
Flower is the reproductive organ of angiosperms. It consists of
calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium.
Pre-Fertilization: Structures And Events
„„ Hormonal and structural changes initiated lead to
differentiation and development of floral primordium.
„„ Inflorescences are formed which bear floral buds and then
the flowers.
„„ Androecium (male reproductive organ) and gynoecium
(female reproductive organ) differentiate and develop.
◊ Stamen
Stamen consists of 2 parts:
„„ Anther – Terminal bilobed structure.
„„ Filament – Long slender stalk. Proximal end of the filament
is attached to the thalamus or the petal.
Structure Of Anther
„„ Anther has 2 lobe (bilobed). Each lobe consists of 2 theca.
Hence it is dithecous
„„ Anther is a tetragonal structure which consist of 4 micro
sporangia located 2 in each lobe.
„„ Microsporangium develops into pollen sacs.
„„ Pollen sacs run longitudinally and contain pollen grains.
Structure Of Microsporangium
A typical microsporangium appears circular in outline. It is
surrounded by 4 walls.
„„ Epidermis
„„ Endothecium Protects and helps in dehiscence of anther.
„„ Middle layers
„„ Tapetum - nourishes the developing pollen grain.
Sporogenous Tissue
„„ Compactly arranged homogenous cells which are present
at the centre of each microsporangium when the anther is
young
Microsporogenesis
„„ Process of formation of microspores (tetrad) from pollen
mother cell through meiosis.
„„ When the anther matures and dehydrates, the microspore
dissociate from each other and develop into pollen grains.
„ „ Thousands of pollen grains formed inside a
microsporangium that are released with dehiscence of
anther.
◊ Pollen Grains
„„ Pollen grains are male gametophyte; spherical in shape.
Structure Of Pollen Grain
Pollen grains are made of two-layered wall:
Exine
„„ Made of sporopollenin (most resistant organic matter
known).
„„ Germ pores- Apertures on exine where sporopollenin is
absent; forms pollen tube.
Intine
„„ Thin and continuous layer
„„ Made of cellulose and pectin
Mature Pollen
A mature pollen grain contains of 2 cells:
Vegetative Cell: bigger; abundant food reserve; large irregular
nucleus; responsible for the development of pollen grain
Generative Cell: small; involved in syngamy; dense cytoplasm
and nucleus; pollen grains cause allergy and bronchial afflic-
tions; leading to chronic respiratory disorders like asthma, bron-
chitis. E.g. Parthenium (carrot grass)
„„ Pollen grains are rich in nutrient.
„„ Pollen tablets and syrup are used as food supplements
„„ Pollen consumption claimed to increase performance of
athletes and race horses.
In some cereals such as rice and wheat, pollen grains lose
viability within 30 minutes of their release, and in some
members of Rosaceae, Leguminoseae and Solanaceae.
◊ Pistil
„„ Pistil consists of stigma, style and ovary.
-Stigma: Landing platform for pollen grains
-Style: Elongated slender part
-Ovary: Basal bulged part
„„ Gynoecium consists of
- Single pistil: Monocarpellary
- More than 1 pistil: Multicarpellary
◊ Megasporangium (Ovule)
„„ Ovule - Small structure attached to placenta.
ff Single ovule – Wheat, paddy
 ff Many ovules- Papaya, water melons „„ Closeness of stigma and anther
„„ Funicle - Stalk by which ovule is attached to placenta „„ Chasmogamous flowers- Flowers with exposed anthers
„„ Hilum - Junction between ovule and funicle and stigma

„„ Integuments - Protective envelopes of ovule „„ Cleistogamous flowers- Flowers which do not open at all

„„ Micropyle - Small opening at the tip of ovule into where „„ Cleistogamy is disadvantageous because there is no chance
pollen tube enters of variation.

„„ Chalaza - Basal part of ovule „„ Examples: Oxalis & Viola

„„ Nucellus (2n) - Mass of cells enclosed within integuments. Geitonogamy

Have abundant food reserve. „„ Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of ANOTHER
Megasporogenesis flower of the same plant.
„„ Process of formation of megaspores from megaspore mother „„ Genetically similar
cells.
„„ Example: Cucurbits
„„ Megaspore mother cells divide meiotically to form 4
megaspore (haploid). Out of 4, only 1 megaspore is Xenogamy
functional and forms gametophyte and the rest degenerate.
„„ Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of another
◊ Female Gametophyte (Embryo Sac) flower of DIFFERENT plant.
„„ The embryo sac develops from the functional megaspore Adaptations in flowers for Pollination
(n).
Wind Pollination
„„ Monosporic Development: Form single megaspore.
„„ Pollen grains: light, non- sticky, winged
Formation of Embryo Sac
„„ Anther: well-exposed
„„ Nucleus of functional megaspore divides mitotically to form
2 nuclei which move to opposite poles, forming 2-nucleate „„ Stigma: large and feathery
embryo sac.
„„ Flower: one ovule, arranged as inflorescence
„„ Two more mitotic nuclear division results in 4-nucleate and
later 8- nucleate stages of embryo sac. „„ Examples: Corn cob, grasses
„„ A typical angiosperm embryo sac, at maturity, is 8-nucleate Water Pollination
and 7-celled.
Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Algae
Structure of Embryo Sac
„„ Pollen grains: protected from wetting by mucilaginous
„„ Egg apparatus - Present at the micropylar end; consist of 2
covering
synergids and 1 egg cell
„„ Synergids have cellular thickenings at micropylar tip called „„ E.g., Fresh water plants: Vallisneria, Hydrilla
filiform apparatus – guides the pollen tube into the synergid Sea-grass- Zostera
„„ Antipodal- 3 cells present at chalazal end „„ Produce pollen grains in large number
„„ Large central cell- 2 Polar Nuclei
„„ Do not produce nectar
Pollination „„ Female flower remains submerged in water
The transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of a pistil is
„„ Pollen grains - long, ribbon-like
called pollination. Based on the source of pollen, pollination is
of 3 types: „„ Carried passively by water currents to reach female flower
„„ Autogamy Vallisneria
„„ Geitonogamy „„ Female flower- Reach the water surface by long coiled stalk
„„ Xenogamy
„„ Male flower or pollen grains- Released onto the water
Autogamy surface; carried by water currents; some eventually reach
the stigma
Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of the SAME
flower. Insect Pollination

Requirement: „„ Flowers: large, colorful, fragrant, rich in nectar

„„ Synchrony in pollen release and stigma receptivity. „„ Pollen grains and stigma: sticky

Certain rewards to pollinators:
▪▪ Nectar and edible pollen grains as foods
▪▪ Provide safe place for laying eggs
▪▪ E.g. Amorphophallus & Yucca
Outbreeding Devices
Continued self-pollination results in inbreeding depression
Ways to avoid Self-pollination:
„„ Pollen release & stigma receptivity – not synchronized
„„ Stigma and anther – placed at different positions
„„ Self-incompatibility
„„ Production of unisexual flowers
ff Castor, maize (prevents autogamy)
ff Papaya (prevents autogamy & geitonogamy)
Pollen – Pistil Interaction
All events from deposition of pollen on stigma till the pollen
tube enters the ovule. These are
„„ Recognition of compatible pollen
„„ Germination of pollen grains
„„ Development of Male Gametophyte
Artificial Hybridization: can be achieved by two ways-
„„ Emasculation : Removal of anther
„„ Bagging : Flower covered by a bag made up of butter paper
to prevent contamination of stigma with unwanted pollen.
„„ When bagged flower attains receptivity, mature pollen
grains are dusted on the stigma, the flowers are rebagged
and fruits allowed to develop
Post- fertilization Events
All events that occur in a flower, after double fertilization are
called post- fertilization events
Major events are:
„„ Development of endosperm
„„ Development of embryo
„„ Maturation of ovule into seed
„„ Maturation of ovary into fruit
◊ Endosperm
„„ Free nuclear type (common method)
„„ Cells of endosperm stores food materials and are used for
the nutrition of developing embryo
◊ Embryo
„„ Embryogeny – Early stages of embryo development
Zygote → Pro-embryo → Globular embryo → Heart
shaped embryo → Mature embryo
„„ Embryo consists of embryonal axis, cotyledons, plumule
and radicle or root tip.
„„ Embryos of monocotyledons possess only one cotyledon.
„„ Coleorhiza: Undifferentiated sheath covering radical and
root cap
„„ Coleoptile: Protective sheath of plumule
◊ Seed
„„ Fertilised and mature ovule forms seed
„„ Seed consists of seed coat, cotyledon and embryonal axis
„„ Perisperm: Remnants of nucellus E.g. Black pepper and
beet
„„ Non-Albuminous/Non-Endospermic seeds- Endosperm
is completely utilized before maturation of seeds. E.g.: pea
„„ Albuminous/Endospermic seeds- A portion of endosperm
remains in mature seeds. E.g.: castor
Dormancy: State of inactivity
Fruit
„„ Fruit formation from unfertilized ovules: Parthenocarpic
fruit: E.g., Banana
„„ Fruit formed from the ovary : True fruit
„„ Parthenocarpy can be induced by gibberellins & auxins
„„ False fruit: Any part other than ovary- forms part of fruit.
E.g.: Apple
Apomixis
„„ Form of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual
reproduction; seed formed without fertilization
„„ Diploid cell is formed without meiosis and develops into
embryo without fertilization.
„„ Cells of nucellus (2n) surrounding embryo sac protrude into
embryo sac and develop into embryos. Examples: Citrus
and Mango.
Polyembryony
„„ Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed