SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
Flowering plants (angiosperms) reproduce by sexual and asexual
means. Here we deal with their process of sexual reproduction.
Diagrammatic life cycle of an angiospermic plant
Stages of sexual reproduction in angiosperms
Gametogenesis
I. Pre-fertilisation
Gamete transfer / Pollination
II. Fertilisation Syngamy + triple fusion
Endosperm and Embryo development
III. Post-fertilisation
Maturation of ovule into seed and ovary into
fruit
Differentiation
Pollen grain (Male gametophyte):
 Spherical in structure.
A pollen grain has a two-layered wall-
Outer Exine: Made up of sporopollenin (most resistant organic
polymer). Exine has apertures called germ pores where
sporopollenin is absent.
Inner Intine: It is a thin layer made up of cellulose and pectin.
When pollen grain attain maturity, it contains 2 cells-
 Vegetative cell: Bigger, have reserved food and a large nucleus.
 Generative cell: Small. It floats in the cytoplasm of the
vegetative cell. Has a nucleus. It mitotically divides to form 2
male gametes.
I. PRE-FERTILISATION: STRUCTURES & EVENTS
 Flowers are the sites of sexual reproduction.
In a flower, Androecium represents the male reproductive part &
Gynoecium represents the female reproductive part.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE PART /
Androecium
 Androecium consists of a whorl of stamens. A stamen has 2 parts:
a. Filament: The long and slender stalk. Its proximal end is attached
to the thalamus or the petal of the flower.
b. Anther: The terminal bilobed structure. Each lobe is dithecous
(has 2 thecae).
o The anther is a tetragonal structure consisting of 4 microsporangia
located at the corners, 2 in each lobe.
The microsporangia develop further and become pollen sacs that
are packed with pollen grains.
Structure of microsporangium:
It is surrounded by 4 wall layers–
Layer Function
i. Outer Epidermis - Protection
ii. Endothecium - Help in dehiscence (burst open) of anther to
iii. Middle layers release the pollen.
iv. Inner Tapetum - Nourishes the developing pollen grains.
- The centers of each microsporangium contain homogenous cells
called sporogenous tissue.
Microsporogenesis:
 The formation of microspores from a pollen mother cell through
meiosis is called microsporogenesis.
 As the anther develops, the sporogenous tissue in a
microsporangium is differentiated into pollen (microspore
mother cell). The microspores are arranged in a cluster of 4 cells
(microspore tetrad).
 As the anthers mature and dehydrate, the microspores dissociate
and develop into pollen grains.
Differentiation
Dehydration
Meiosis
Mitosis
Pollen Viability:
 Viability is the capacity of pollen to bring about fertilization
after its release. Its duration depends on environmental
temperature and humidity.
e.g.: 30 minutes in rice, wheat etc., months in some members
of Leguminoseae, Rosaceae & Solanaceae.
 Pollen grains can be stored for years without losing its viability
in -1960C liquid nitrogen for crop breeding programmes.
ECONOMICAL IMPORTANCE OF POLLEN:
1. Allergy: Some pollen grains (e.g. Parthenium or carrot grass)
cause allergy and respiratory disorders for some people.
2. As food supplements: Pollen consumption (as tablets & syrups)
increases performance of athletes and race horses.
 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE PART /
Gynoecium
 Gynoecium consists of whorls of pistils. Each pistil has three
parts:
a. Stigma: It is a landing platform for pollen grains.
b. Style: It is a long slender part below the stigma.
c. Ovary: It is the basal swollen part of the pistil.
Inside the ovary, there is a tissue called placenta upon which
ovules (megasporangia) are developing. The number of ovules
in an ovary may be one or many.
Structure of megasporangium(Ovule):
 It is a small structure attached to the placenta by means of a
stalk (funicle). The junction where the body of ovule and funicle Formation of Embryo sac (Female gametophyte):
fuse is called hilum.
 The nucleus of the functional megaspore divides mitotically to
 Each ovule has one or two protective envelopes called
form 2 nuclei which move to the opposite poles, forming the 2-
integuments. Integuments encircle the ovule except at the tip
nucleate embryo sac.
where a small opening (micropyle) is organized.
Two more sequential mitotic nuclear divisions result in the
Opposite the micropylar end is the chalaza (basal part of the
formation of the 4-nucleate and later the 8-nucleate stages of
ovule).
the embryo sac.
 Enclosed within the integuments, there is a mass of cells called
 6 of the 8 nuclei are surrounded by cell walls and organized into
nucellus. It contains reserve food materials.
cells. Remaining 2 nuclei (polar nuclei) are situated below the
 Within the nucellus is the embryo sac (female gametophyte) is
egg apparatus in the large central cell.
seen.
Distribution of the cells within the embryo sac:
Megasporogenesis:
 3 cells are grouped together at the micropylar end and constitute
 The formation of megaspores from the megaspore mother cell
the egg apparatus. It consists of 2 synergids and one egg cell.
(MMC) is called megasporogenesis.
The synergids have filiform apparatus which guide the pollen
 Ovules differentiate a single megaspore mother cell in the
tubes into the synergid.
micropylar region of the nucellus.
 3 cells are at the chalazal end and are called the antipodals.
The MMC undergoes meiosis. It results in 4 megaspores. Out of
 The large central cell has 2 polar nuclei.
these, upper 3 get degenerates.
Thus, a typical mature angiosperm embryo sac is 8- nucleate
 The functional megaspore develops into the female
and 7-celled.
gametophyte (Embryo sac). This method of embryo sac
formation from a single megaspore is termed monosporic
development.

Organization
2 Mitotic nuclear
division
Mitotic nuclear
division
Meiosis

Degenerates

Pollination
 It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of
a pistil.
Kinds of Pollination
Depending on the source of pollen, pollination is 3 types-
1. Autogamy (autoG= self, gamyG= marriage): It is the pollination
within the same flower.
Plants like Viola, Oxalis & Commelina produce 2 types of
flowers:
o Chasmogamous: Flowers with exposed anthers and stigma.
o Cleistogamous (cleistoG= closed): Flowers that do not open at all. Outbreeding Devices (Adaptation for xenogamy):
2. Geitonogamy (geitonoG= neighbour): It is the pollination Majority of flowering plants undergo self-pollination results in
between 2 flowers of the same plant. Need a pollinating agent. inbreeding depression.
It is genetically similar to autogamy. To avoid self pollination and encourage cross-pollination, there
3. Xenogamy (XenoG= strange): It is the pollination between are some adaptations in plants:
flowers of 2 different plants. This brings genetic differences.
Out-breeding
Mechanism prevent-
Pollen-pistil Interaction:
device  It is a dynamic process involving pollen recognition followed by
Either the pollen is released before promotion or inhibition of the pollen.
a. Avoiding the stigma becomes receptive or
autogamy  If the pollen is compatible (right type)-The pistil accepts it and
synchronization stigma becomes receptive before the
release of pollen. promotes post-pollination events.
b. Anther & The pollen grain germinates on the stigma to produce a pollen
stigma are
The pollen cannot come in contact tube through one of the germ pores.
placed at autogamy
with the stigma of the same flower.
different
position
The 2 male gametes of the pollen grain move into the pollen tube.
Prevent self-pollen from fertilization
c. Self- autogamy Pollen tube grows through the tissues of the stigma and style.
by inhibiting pollen germination or
incompatibility geitonogamy
pollen tube growth in the pistil.
d. Production of Reaches the ovary and enters the ovule through the filiform
Male and female flowers are present autogamy apparatus.
unisexual
on different plants geitonogamy
flowers

Agents of Pollination
Agent

Abiotic Biotic
Wind Animals
Water
o Pollination by wind:
More common in grasses.  If the pollen is incompatible (wrong type)-
The pistil rejects the pollen by preventing pollen germination
 Characters of wind-pollinating flowers:
on the stigma or the pollen tube growth in the style.
a. The flowers produce enormous amount of pollen.
b. The pollen grains are light and non-sticky. Artificial Hybridisation:
c. They possess well-exposed stamens (for easy dispersion of  It is one of the major approaches of crop improvement
pollens into wind currents). programme.
d. Large, feathery stigma (to trap air-borne pollen grains).  In this, desired pollen grains are used for pollination.
e. Have a single ovule in each ovary This is achieved by:-
f. Numerous flowers packed into an inflorescence. Step 1. Emasculation: Removing the anther of bisexual flower bud of
g. Colourless and do not produce nectar. female parent before the anther dehisces.
Step 2. Bagging: Covered with a suitable bag to prevent
o Pollination by water:
contamination of it stigma with unwanted pollen.
It is quite rare. Occur mostly in monocots.
Step 3. Artificial pollination: When the stigma attains receptivity,
E.g. Vallisneria & Hydrilla (fresh water), Zostera (marine sea-
mature pollen grains collected from anthers of the male
grasses) etc.
parent are dusted on the stigma.
- Not all aquatic plants use hydrophily. Some of them (water
Step 4. Rebagging: The flowers are rebagged and allowed to develop
hyacinth, water lily etc) are entomophily or anemophily.
the fruits.
 Characters of water-pollinating flowers:
a. The pollen grains have a mucilaginous covering (to protect II. FERTILISATION
from wetting). After entering one of the synergids, the pollen tube releases
b. The stigma is long and sticky. the 2 male gametes into the cytoplasm of the synergid.
c. Colourless and nectarless  Syngamy- One of the male gametes fused with the egg cell
forms the zygote (2n) and develops into an embryo.
o Pollination by animals:
Male gamete (n) + Zygote (2n) Embryo Plant (2n)
Majority of flowering plants use animals as pollinating agents. Egg cell (n)
E.g. Bees, butterflies, flies, beetles, wasps, ants, moths,
sunbirds and humming birds, bats, lemurs, tree-dwelling Egg
rodents, garden lizard etc.
 Characters of insect-pollinating flowers:
a. Large, colourful, fragrant and rich in nectar (Nectar & pollen
grains are the floral rewards for pollination).
b. If the flowers are small, they form inflorescence to make them
 Triple fusion- The other male gamete fuses with 2 polar nuclei
visible.
to produce a triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN) and
c. Some flowers that are pollinated by flies and beetles secrete
develops into the endosperm.
foul odours to attract these animals.
d. The pollen grains are sticky. Male gamete (n) + Primary Endosperm Endosperm (3n)
2 polar nuclii (n+n) Nucleus (3n)
Since 2 types of fusions (syngamy & triple fusion) take place in
an embryo sac it is called double fertilisation.

Fertilized
Embryo-sac
III. POST-FERTILISATION: STRUCTURES &
EVENTS
 Following double fertilisation, events of endosperm and embryo
development, maturation of ovule(s) into seed(s) and ovary into
fruit, are collectively termed post-fertilisation events.
Endosperm
 Endosperm cells are filled with reserve food materials. They are
used for the nutrition of the developing embryo.
Steps of Endosperm development:-
Step 1. The PEN undergoes successive nuclear divisions to give rise
to free nuclei. This stage is called free-nuclear endosperm.
Step 2. Cell wall formation occurs and the endosperm becomes
cellular.
The tender coconut water is a free-nuclear endosperm and the
surrounding white kernel is the cellular endosperm.
Embryo development:
 Embryo develops, consuming the endosperm, from the zygote
at the micropylar end of the embryo sac.
 The zygote gives rise to the proembryo and subsequently to the
globular, heart-shaped and mature embryo.
Structure of Dicot embryo
 It has an embryonal axis and 2 cotyledons
(food storage).
- The portion of embryonal axis above the
level of cotyledons is the epicotyl, which
terminates with the plumule (stem tip).
- The cylindrical portion below the level of
cotyledons is hypocotyl that terminates
with the radicle (root tip).
The root tip is covered with a root cap.
Structure of Monocot embryo
 They possess only one cotyledon.
 In the grass family the cotyledon is called
scutellum. It is situated lateral to the
embryonal axis.
 At its lower end, the embryonal axis has the
radicle and root cap enclosed in coleorrhiza.
 Portion of embryonal axis above the level of
attachment of scutellum is the epicotyl.
It has a shoot apex and a few leaf primordia
enclosed in coleoptile (a hollow foliar
structure).
SEED
 Seed is the fertilized ovule formed inside fruits.
It consists of seed coat(s), cotyledon(s) and an embryo axis.
A. Seed coat(s)
It is formed from integuments of ovules harden as tough
protective covering. It has a small pore (micropyle) through
which O2 & water enter into the seed during germination.
B. Cotyledon(s)
 Cotyledons are swollen structures where reserved food is stored.
Based on the endosperm remaining, mature seeds may be non-
albuminous or albuminous-
o Non-albuminous seeds: No endosperm balance as it is
completely consumed during embryo development.
e.g., pea, groundnut.
o Albuminous seeds: Retain a part of endosperm.
e.g., wheat, maize, barley, castor.
Remnants of nucellus in matured seed are called perisperm.
Ex.: black pepper, beet.
Seed Dormancy:-
 As the seed matures, its water content is reduced and seeds
become dry. The embryo may enter a state of inactivity
(dormancy).
If favourable conditions are available (adequate moisture, O2
and suitable temperature), they germinate.
Advantages of seeds:
a. Seeds have better adaptive strategies for dispersal to new
habitats and help the species to colonize in other areas.
b. They have food reserves. So young seedlings are nourished until
they are capable of photosynthesis.
c. The hard seed coat protects the young embryo.
d. It can be used as food throughout the year and also to raise
crop in the next season.
Viability of seed:
o In a few species the seeds lose viability within a few months
after dispersal. Seeds of many species live for several years.
FRUIT
 Fruits are formed as a result of cell division and differentiation
in the ovary. The wall of ovary develops into pericarp (wall of
fruit).
Fruits are 3 types-
1. True fruits: The fruit that develops from the ovary (other floral
parts degenerate and fall off).
2. False fruits: Fruits that develop from the parts other than ovary.
E.g. apple, strawberry, cashew etc.
3. Parthenocarpic fruits: These are fruits develop without
fertilisation. E.g. Banana.
APOMIXIS & POLYEMBRYONY
 Apomixis is the production of seeds without fertilisation.
Advantage:- There is no segregation of characters in the hybrid
progeny.
Ways of development of apomictic seeds:
1st way The diploid egg cell is formed without reduction division
and develops into the embryo without fertilization.
E.g. Some species of Asteraceae and grasses
2nd way Some of the nucellar cells surrounding the embryo sac
start dividing and develop into the embryos.
E.g. In many Citrus and Mango varieties
 Polyembryony: Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed.
e.g. Citrus varieties