CHAPTER 2

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING

PLANTS
1. Why are angiosperm anthers called dithecous? Describe the structure of its
microsporangium.

Ans. Since, the angiosperm’s anthers are bilobed, each lobe bearing two thecae, they
are referred to as dithecous. Microsporangium appears circular in outline and is
usually surrounded by four wall layers. The outer three layers epidermis,
endothecium and middle layers are protective in function. They also help in dispersal
of pollens by dehiscing themselves. The structure of a mature microsporangium can
be described with the help of given diagram. While, the innermost layer tapetum is
nutritive in function and nourishes the developing pollen grains. The centre of the
microsporangium comprises of compact
sporogenous tissue. The cells of this sporogenous tissue undergo meiotic divisions to
form microspore tetrads, that further develop to form pollen grains.

The structure of a mature microsporangium can be described with the help of

diagram given below.

2. Explain the structure of pollen grain. Illustrate with labelled diagram.

Ans. Pollen grains are microscopic structures that carry the male reproductive cells of
a plant. It is a double-walled structure with a thin inner wall known as intine
composed of cellulose and pectin and a thick outer wall known as exine, composed
of sporopollenin. The exine protects the male genetic material during transportation
from an anther to stigma.
The cytoplasm of pollen grain is surrounded by a plasma membrane. When the
pollen grain is mature it contains two cells, the vegetative cell and generative cell.
The vegetative cell is bigger, has abundant food reserve and a large irregularly
shaped nucleus. The generative cell is small and floats in the cytoplasm of the
vegetative cell. It is spindle shaped with dense cytoplasm and a nucleus. The
generative cell undergoes mitosis to produce two male gametes which are involved
in the process of fertilisation.

Fig: Section of a mature pollen grain

3. Pollen banks are playing a very important role in promoting plant breeding
programme the world over. How are pollens preserved in the pollen banks?
Explain. How are such banks benefitting our farmers? Write any two ways.
Ans. Pollen grains are stored for years in liquid nitrogen (-196°C) in pollen banks for
later use in plant breeding programmes. Plant breeding is a technique of
manipulation of plant species in order to create desired plant types that are better
suited for cultivation, give better yield and are disease resistant.
The objectives of such pollen banks include incorporation of certain traits or
characters into crop plants in order to enhance the food production such as
(i) Increased tolerance to environmental stresses such as salinity, extreme
temperature, drought,etc.
(ii) Resistance to pathogens like viruses, fungi and bacteria.

4. Draw a diagram of a section of a megasporangium of an angiosperm and

label its parts.
Ans.
5. Explain the formation of mature embryo sac with diagrams.
Ans. The process of formation of megaspores from the megaspore mother cell
is called megasporogenesis. Ovules generally differentiate a single megaspore
mother cell (MMC) in the micropylar region of the nucellus. It is a large cell
containing dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus. The MMC undergoes
meiotic division. Meiosis results in the production of four megaspores. Fig (a). In
a majority of flowering plants, one of the megaspores is functional while the
other three degenerate. Only the functional megaspore develops into the
female gametophyte (embryo sac). This method of embryo sac formation from
a single megaspore is termed monosporic development.
The nucleus of the functional megaspore divides mitotically to form two nuclei
which move to the opposite poles, forming the 2-nucleate embryo sac. Two
more sequential mitotic nuclear divisions result in the formation of the 4-
nucleate and later the 8-nucleate stages of the embryo sac. The cell walls of the
8 nucleate stage are organized in the form of a female gametophyte or embryo
sac. Fig (b).
Six out of the eight nuclei are surrounded by cell walls. The egg apparatus
comprises of two synergids and one egg cell. Three cells called the antipodals are
present at the chalazal end. The central cell is formed by the fusion of two polar
nuclei. On maturity, the embryo sac of the angiosperms consists of 8 nuclei and 7
cells. Fig (c).
6. List the different types of pollination depending upon the source of pollen
grain.
Ans. Depending on the source of pollen grain, pollination can be classified into

Autogamy: It is the transfer of pollen grain from anther to the stigma of the
same flower. Ex: Sunflower, Orchid, Peas.

Geitonogamy: It is the transfer of pollen grains from anther of one flower to the
stigma of another flower on the same plant. Geitonogamy is functionally cross-
pollination involving pollinating agent, but genetically it is equivalent to
autogamy since the pollen grains come from the same plant. Ex: Maize, Corn.

Xenogamy: It is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of

different plants of same species. It brings genetically different types of pollen
grains to the stigma. Ex: Broccoli, Spinach, Onion.
7. Compare the characteristic features of flowers pollinated by wind, water and
insect.

Ans. Characteristics of wind-pollinated flowers:

These flowers are not brightly coloured. They possess no special odours or nectar.
They are small and have no petals. Their stigma and stamens are exposed to air
currents. The pollen is smooth, light can be blown easily by wind and are in large
numbers. The stigma is feathery and can catch pollen from the wind. Ex: Grass, Oak,
Beachwood, Maize.
Characteristics of water-pollinated flowers:

They possess small male flowers that are not clearly visible. A large number of
pollens are released in water that is caught by large, feathery stigma of female
flowers. This pollen keeps floating on the water surface until they are caught by
female flowers. Ex: Vallisneria, Hydrilla.
Characteristics of insect-pollinated flowers:

They are large with bright-coloured petals to attract insects. The flowers have nectar
and a pleasant fragrance. The pollen grains are sticky and can easily stick to the
insect’s body. Ex: Rose, Papaya, Sunflower.

8. Differentiate between microsporogenesis and megasporogenesis.

Ans.
9. Not all hydrophytes are pollinated by water. Justify giving two examples.

Ans. Those hydrophytes whose flowers emerge above the surface of water, are
pollinated by wind or insects, e.g. water hyacinth and water lily are pollinated by
insects.

10.How does a chasmogamous bisexual flower prevent self-pollination?

Ans. A chasmogamous bisexual flower prevents self-pollination in the following
ways:

Dichogamy: In this strategy, the release of pollens and the receptivity of stigma are
not synchronized. For e.g., in Sunflower, the stigma becomes receptive long after the
pollen release.

Herkogamy: In this, the male and female flowers are present at different locations. In
this, the pollen of the flower cannot come in contact with the stigma of the same
flower. For e.g., Hibiscus gloriosa

Self-sterility/Genetic incompatibility: It is a mechanism in which the growth of the

pollen tube in the pistil or the germination of pollen grains is inhibited. This prevents
the fertilization of the ovules from the pollen of the same flower. For e.g., Lotus,
Orchid, Abolition.