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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Sexual Reproduction
in Flowering Plants
Parts of Typical
Flower
Parts of Typical Flower

Whorl of stamens
(Androecium)

Petal

Whorl of carpels
(Gynoecium)

Sepal
 The Stamen

(Anther +Filament)
Anther (The terminal,
Stamen generally bilobed
(Long slender structure structure )
and forms male
reproductive organ)
Filament (The long and
slender stalk )
 Structure of the Anther
Bilobed

Microsporangia

Dithecous
(Each lobe has
two theca)

Transverse section of a young anther

 Structure of Microsporangium

Enlarged structure
with the wall layers

Endothecium

Middle layers

Tapetum

Sporogenous
tissue
Transverse section of a young anther
 Structure of Microsporangium
● Perform the function of
protection Enlarged structure of
● Help in dehiscence of anther anther lobe section
to release the pollen with the wall layers

Endothecium
● Nourishes the pollen grains
● Cells of tapetum have a Middle layers
dense cytoplasm and more
than one nucleus generally Tapetum

Sporogenous
● The cells of the sporogenous tissue
tissue undergo meiotic
divisions to form microspore
tetrads
Microsporogenesis
 Microsporogenesis
• It is the process of formation of microspores from microspore mother cells
through meiosis.
• It occurs in the sporogenous tissue.

Microsporangia
(Sporogenous tissue)
 Microsporogenesis

Pollen
mother
cell (2n)

Meiosis I Meiosis II

2 haploid cells 4 haploid cells

 Microsporogenesis

Many
such Microsporangium
events
occur Microspores
Microspore tetrad

Inside each microsporangium, several thousands of microspores are formed

and develop to form pollen grains that are released with the dehiscence of
anther.
Pollen Grains
 Pollen Grains

Pollen grains
=
Male gametophytes

They develop from

microspores
 Vacuole
Pollen Formation
Vegetative cell

1st Mitosis Generative cell

A single large vacuole is Mitotic division results in 2-

Nucleus formed and cell division begins celled stage of the pollen grain
Vacuoles grow in the
microspore
 Pollen Formation

Vegetative cell Generative cell

● Smaller size
● Large size
● Floats in the
● Abundant
cytoplasm of
food reserve
vegetative cell
● Irregularly
● Spindle-shaped
shaped
● Dense cytoplasm
nucleus
and nucleus

2-celled stage of the pollen grain

 Pollen Formation
● In over 60 per cent of angiosperms , pollen grains are shed at this
2-celled stage .

● In the remaining species, the generative cell divides mitotically to

give rise to the two male gametes before pollen grains are shed
(3-celled stage).

Male gametes
Vegetative cell Pollen release

Mitosis

Generative
cell 2-celled stage 3-celled stage
Pollen Structure
 Pollen Structure

Exine Intine

● Thin inner layer

● Hard outer layer
● Continuous layer
● Made of
● Made of:
sporopollenin -
○ Cellulose
most resistant
○ Pectin
organic material
known
● Has apertures
called germ pores

Germ Pore
 Pollen Allergy
● Pollens can cause allergy
● Cause respiratory disorders
○ Asthma
○ Bronchitis
● Contaminant of imported
wheat
○ Parthenium is an
example
● Widespread in India now
Pollen Viability
● Differs amongst species:
○ 30 minutes : Rice and wheat
○ Few months: Members of
Rosaceae, Leguminoseae and
Solanaceae
● Can be stored at -1960 C in liquid
nitrogen- pollen banks
Structure of Ovary
 Structure of Ovary
Pistil Chamber/cavity inside
ovary
Stigma
Locule Structures which develop
into seeds
Style Ovules

Transverse
Ovary section of ovary
 Structure of Ovule
Hilum
Chalazal end ● Point of attachment of funicle with ovule body
Outer Integuments
integument ● Protective layers
Nucellus
Nucellus
Embryo sac ● Mass of cells inside integuments
Inner ● Cells have abundant food reserves
Hilum integument
Micropyle
● Tip of nucellus that is
Funicle not covered by
Micropyle integuments
 Structure of Ovule

Micropylar end
Chalazal end ● Ovule region near micropyle
Outer Chalazal end
integument ● Region opposite to micropylar end
Nucellus
Embryo sac
Embryo sac ● Located inside nucellus
Inner ● Embryo sac = Female gametophyte
Hilum integument

Funicle
Micropyle
 Female Gametophyte

Megasporogenesis - Process of formation of megaspores from

megaspore mother cell (MMC)

Megasporogenesis
MMC Megaspore

Chalazal end
Megaspore
mother cell
(MMC)

Micropylar end
 Megasporogenesis

Meiosis I Meiosis II

Megaspore tetrad
Megaspore mother (n)
Megaspore dyad (n)
cell (MMC) (2n)
Generally, only
one out of
four
megaspores
Functional
remains
megaspore functional,
(n) others
degenerate.
 Megagametogenesis
4 nucleate 8 nucleate
stage stage
Functional Binucleate
megaspore stage
(n)

Mitosis
 Megagametogenesis
8 nucleate Chalazal end
embryo sac

Female
gametophyte

Micropylar end
 Female Gametophyte - Structure
Chalazal end
Antipodal cells

A typical mature
female
gametophyte
Central cell has 7 cells with
8 nuclei .
Polar nuclei

Synergids
Egg
Egg cell apparatus

Filiform (Role in guiding the

apparatus pollen tubes into embryo
Micropylar end sac)
Pollination
 Pollination
Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a pistil.
Pollination
Pollination from 2 Self-pollination
same plant but with the same
different flower flower
1 Self pollination

Cross-pollination
Cross
from different
pollination
plant
3
 Pollination
Types of pollination

Autogamy Geitonogamy Xenogamy

Transfer of Transfer of Transfer of pollen

pollen from pollen from from anther of one
anther to anther to stigma flower to stigma of
stigma of of genetically genetically
same flower similar flower different flower
from the same
plant
 Autogamy
● Transfer of pollen grains within the same flower
● Synchrony in pollen release and stigma receptivity
● Anther and stigma need to be close
 Autogamy
Anther and stigma are
brought together by
various mechanisms

Chasmogamous flower
Open; exposed anther Anther and stigma lie
and stigma close to each other
within the bud

Cleistogamous flower
Closed; flowers do not
open at all
 Autogamy
Cleistogamous flowers
● Plants such as Viola (common pansy), Oxalis , and Commelina produce
these flowers.

● Pollination :

1 Anthers dehisce in the flower buds

2 Pollen grains come in contact with the stigma

3 Production of assured seed-set

 Geitonogamy Xenogamy

● Transfer of pollen grains to ● Transfer of pollen from

another flower of same plant anther of one flower to
● Geitonogamy is functionally stigma of genetically
cross-pollination involving a different flower
pollinating agent
● Needs help of external
● Genetically similar to
agencies
autogamy
Agents of Cross
Pollination
 Agents
Anemophily
Entomophily

Hydrophilly

Ornithophily

Chiropterophily

Abiotic agents Biotic agents

 Anemophily

● Transfer of pollen grains

● Mature anther stigma
● Agent - wind
● E.g. Common in grasses

Characteristics of Anemophilous Flowers

1. Pollen grains are light and non-sticky

2. Single ovule in a ovary

3. Feathery stigma

4. Well exposed stamens

5. Numerous flowers

6. Flowers are packed into inflorescence

 Hydrophily

● Only in 30 genera
● Mostly monocotyledons
● Long, ribbon like pollen grains with mucilaginous covering
● E.g. Vallisneria , Hydrilla , marine sea grasses (Zostera)

Sea grasses
⮚ Female flowers remain
submerged in water
⮚ The pollen grains are released
inside the water

Sea grasses
Water Level Pistillate flowers

Male flowers

In Vallisneria
⮚ Female flower reaches the surface of water
⮚ Male flowers or pollen grains are released on to the surface of water
⮚ They are carried passively by water currents
⮚ Some of them eventually reach the female flowers and the stigma
 Entomophily
● Most common type
● By the agency of insects (moths, butterflies, wasps,
bees, beetles, etc)
● Plants provide nectar, edible pollen grains or
Characteristics of Anemophilous Flowers
shelter.
1. Showy and brightly coloured, Small flowers grouped to be conspicuous

2. Landing platform (Viola); honey/ nectar guides (Mimulus)

4. Produce odour-pleasant (J asmine) / foul (Rafflesia)

5. Secretion of nectar, Produce edible pollens

6. Inserted stamens (Petunia), Sticky stigma (Lilies)

7. Pollens- spiny, heavy, surrounded by pollen kit

8. Safe place to lay eggs (Amorphophallus)

 Ornithophily Chiropterophily

● Performed by birds ● Performed by bats

● Few specialized bird species ● Long distance pollen transfer is
○ Small size; long beaks possible
● Sunbirds, Humming birds

Sunbirds Bombax
Outbreeding Devices
 Outbreeding Devices

Outbreeding
● Breeding between unrelated organisms

Outbreeding Devices
● Devices that discourage self-pollination and
encourage cross-pollination

1 Unisexuality 2 Dichogamy

3 Self-incompatibility 4 Heterostyly
 Unisexuality
● Flowers are unisexual
Unisexuality ● Prevents autogamy but not
geitonogamy

Monoecious Dioecious
● Male and female flowers ● Male and female flowers are
are present on same plant present on different plants
● Prevents autogamy but not ● Prevents autogamy and
geitonogamy geitonogamy

Maize Castor
Separate male and
female papaya plants
 Dichogamy

Dichogamy Prevents autogamy

Protandry Protogyny

Anthers mature before the Stigma matures before

stigma of the same flower anthers of the same flower

Salvia Sunflower Mirabilis jalapa Gloriosa

 Self-incompatibility

● Pollen grains of flower do not germinate on stigma of the

same flower or flowers of same plant
○ Inhibits pollen germination/ pollen tube growth
○ Genetic mechanism
● Prevents both autogamy and geitonogamy

Tobacco Potato Crucifers

 Heterostyly

● Anther and stigma are placed at different locations

● Prevents autogamy
● E.g. Primrose, Lythrum, etc

Long Short
Style Style
Long Normal Short
Style Style Style
Distyly Tristyly
Artificial Hybridisation
 Artificial Hybridisation

Species 1 Species 2
Artificial Hybridisation
● The crossing between two different species
● Offspring produced are called hybrids Artificial
Hybridisation
● In plant breeding – the pollen grains from
species that have the desired characteristics
are carefully chosen. Hybrid

Benefits
● Tremendous growth
● Development of disease resistance
● Crops that can sustain extreme temperatures
 Steps of Artificial Hybridisation

Emasculation :
Removal of antherbefore dehiscence
Bagging :
Covering of stigma before it reaches receptivity
Rebagging :
Covering of stigma after dusting pollen grains Emasculation Bagging

In bisexual flowers In unisexual flowers

Emasculation Emasculation

Bagging Bagging
Dusting pollen grains
Rebaging Rebaging
Pollen – Pistil
Interaction
 Pollen – Pistil Interaction

Different/Self - Same species/compatible Pollen grain -

incompatible species’ pollen grain V egetative cell -
pollen grain
Male gametes -

Male gametes enter embryo sac

Stigma Stigma through micropylar end generally

Pollen tube formation Pollen tube formation

Fertilization
 Fertilization

Navigation of pollen tube Discharge of male gametes

Pollen tube growth stops Male gametes move

Double Fertilization
 Double Fertilization
● One male gamete fuses with the egg nucleus to form the zygote
- Syngamy
● Other male gamete fuses with the 2 polar nuclei forming the
Primary Endosperm Nucleus (PEN)

Male gamete (n) Polar nucleus (n) Polar nucleus (n)

Triple Fusion

Primary Endosperm
Nucleus (PEN) (3n)

Endosperm (3n)
 Types of Fertilization
Fertilisation based on
pollen tube entry

Porogamy Chalazogamy Mesogamy

● Pollen tube enters via ● Pollen tube enters via ● Pollen tube enters via
the micropylar end the chalazal end the integuments

Lily Casuarina Cucurbita

Post-fertilization
Events
Post-fertilization Events

Endosperm
development

Embryo
development

Ovule Seed

Ovary Fruit
 Endosperm Development

Endosperm
● Main source of nutrition for embryo in the seed
● Should begin before embryo development starts
● Primary endosperm cell Endosperm tissue

Primary
endosperm cell
Endosperm
PEN Embryo
(3n)

Zygote
(2n)
 Endosperm Development
● PEN divides repeatedly Primary Endosperm Nucleus Free nuclei

● Formation of large number of free nuclei

: Free nuclear endosperm
● Subsequent cell wall formation
● Endosperm may either be completely consumed
by the developing embryo (e.g., pea, groundnut,
beans) before seed maturation.
● It may persist in the mature seed (e.g. castor and
coconut) and be used up during seed
germination.
Coconut: Cell wall formation incomplete
● White kernel: Outer multicellular solid endosperm
● Coconut water : Inner multinucleated (free nuclei)
liquid endosperm
 Embryo Development

● Develops at micropylar end Zygote Embryogeny Embryo

● Endosperm provides nutrition to develop

Seeds

Monocots Dicots
One cotyledon Two cotyledons
 Embryogenesis in Dicots

● The zygote gives rise to the proembryo and subsequently to the

globular, heart-shaped and mature embryo

Apical cell Mature

embryo

suspensor
Zygote
Heart-shaped
Basal cell
embryo

Embryogenesis in dicots
 Dicot embryo
● Portion of embryonal axis above cotyledons : Epicotyl
● Epicotyl terminates with stem tip/plumule
● Portion below cotyledons : Hypocotyl
● Hypocotyl terminates with root tip/radicle
● The root tip is covered with a root cap

Plumule

Radicle
Cotyledons

Dicot embryo
 Monocot Embryo

● Coleorhiza - Undifferentiated sheath that encloses radical and root cap

● Epicotyl - Portion of the embryonal axis above the level of attachment of scutellum
● Epicotyl has a shoot apex and a few leaf primordia enclosed in a hollow foliar
structure, the coleoptile.

Scutellum
(Cotyledon)

Coleoptile
Shoot apex
Monocot embryo Epiblast

Radicle
Root cap
Coleorhiza
Seeds
 Seed

Ovule Seed

Integuments Seed coats

Micropyle Micropyle
Disappears
Nucellus or
Persists (Perisperm)
 Seed

Embryo
Embryo
● Develops from a zygote
Cotyledon
Cotyledon
● Food reserves Seed Coat
● Used by the embryo to grow Seed

Seed Coat
● Outermost part of a seed
● Protects the developing embryo
 Seed Dormancy

Seed Dormancy
● State in which embryo becomes inactive (metabolic activity
slows down)

Seed Dormancy - Duration

Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) - Arctic lupine (Lupinus arcticus) –

2,0 0 0 years 10 ,0 0 0 years
 Seed - Conditions for Germination

Suitable temperature Adequate moisture

Proper oxygen supply

 Seed Dispersal
Agents of Seed Dispersal

Wind Water

Explosion Animals
 Types of Seeds

Seeds
(Based on cotyledons)

Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous

Seeds which have a Seeds which have two

single cotyledon cotyledons
 Types of Seeds

Seeds
(Based on endosperm)

Albuminous Non - albuminous

● Endosperm present ● Endosperm absent

● Endosperm not fully
consumed during embryo
development
● Eg. wheat, maize, barley,
and castor.
● Endosperm fully
consumed during embryo
development
● Eg. pea and groundnut
Fruit
 Fruit

Parts of a Fruit
● Epicarp - Skin
Endocarp
Seed ● Mesocarp - Tissue between epicarp and
Mesocarp Pericarp
endocarp
Epicarp
● Endocarp - Covering of the seed

Fruit

Parthenocarpic
True fruit False fruit
fruit
 True Fruit
Epicarp
● Develops from mature ovary Mesocarp
● Example : Mango Seed
Endocarp

False Fruit Thalamus

● Develops from parts of the
Seed
flower other than the ovary
● Example : Apple, strawberry,
cashew, etc- the thalamus also
contributes to fruit formation

Parthenocarpic Fruit
● Fruit develops without fertilization of the ovules
● Seedless fruits
● Occurs naturally or can be induced
● Eg: Banana
Apomixis
 Apomixis
Apomixis
● Process of production of seeds without fertilization
● Apomixis = Apo (without) + mixis (mingling)
● Commonly found in some species of Asteraceae and grasses
● In some species, the diploid egg cell is formed without reduction
division and develops into the embryo without fertilization.

Egg cell
Apomictic
embryo

n 2n
 Apomixis
● In some varieties few nucellar cells surrounding the embryo sac
start dividing, protrude into the embryo sac and develop into the
embryos. Ex: Some varieties of Citrus and mango

Embryo sac Embryo sac

Nucellus cells (2n) Nucellus cells (2n)
Egg cell (n)
Egg cell

2n Penetrating
Nucellar 2n nucellus cells
2n 2n
embryo
Egg cell
Egg cell
Polyembryony
 Polyembryony

Polyembryony - Occurrence of more than one embryo in seeds

1 More
Embryo than 1
embryo

Polyembryony
 Flower Pre-fertilisation

Calyx Microsporogenesis

Filament Corolla MMC Meiosis Microspores Mitosis 1 Vegetative cell +

Pollen grains
(2n) (n) 1 Generative cell
Anther Stamen Androecium
Megasporogenesis
Stigma Pistil Gynoecium
MMC Meiosis 4 Megaspores (n) = Mitosis Embryo sac
Style (2n) 3 degenerate + 1 functional (7 cells. 8 nuclei)

Ovary Pollination Autogamy Geitonogamy Xenogamy

Apomixis and SRFP

Polyembryony

Double
Post-fertilisation Fertilisation

Endosperm development
and Embryo development Syngamy (1 egg + Triple fusion
1 sperm nucleus) (2 Polar nuclei +
1 sperm nucleus)
Seed development

Zygote (2n) Primary Endosperm

Fruit development nucleus (2n)