INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY  The modification of some behavior is to change a behavior from an

Chapter I: The Science of Psychology undesirable one to a desirable one.

Psychology What do Psychologists do?
 derived from two Greek words: “psyche” meaning "breath, spirit, o Psychologists engages in research
soul" and “logia” meaning “study of” or “research”.
TWO TYPES OF RESEARCH THAT PSYCHOLOGIST CONSIDER:
 is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
1. Basic/Pure Research
Scientific
 is undertaken when the researcher is interested in the research topic.
 to study behavior and mental processes in both animals and humans, researchers
must observe them.  It has no immediate application to personal or social problems and has therefore
been characterized as research for its own sake.
Behavior  it enhances tomorrow’s way of life.
 includes all of our outward or overt (obvious) actions and reactions such as talking,
facial expressions, and movement. 2. Applied Research
Mental Processes  It is designed to find solutions to specific personal or social problems
 refers to all the internal, covert (hidden) activity of our minds such as thinking,  It is used in business, medicine, and education in order to find solutions that may
feeling, and remembering. cure diseases, solve scientific problems, or develop technology.

Biases
 personal judgments based on beliefs rather than facts. FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY
o **Psychologists don’t want to let these biases cause them to make faulty A. Academic Psychologists
observations.
1. Social Psychologist are interested in how people behave when they are
Scientific Method together.
 is used by psychologists to study psychology in order to be precise, and to measure 2. School Psychologist help school systems identify and assist students who
as carefully as possible. have problems that interfere with learning.
PSYCHOLOGY’S GOALS 3. Educational Psychologist research theoretical issues related to learning
Specifically aimed at uncovering the mysteries of human and animal behavior measurements and child development.
which include: 4. Developmental Psychologist study the changes (physical, cognitive,
1. Description: What is happening? social, and emotional) that occur throughout the life span.
 Involves observing a behavior and noting everything about it. B. Medical Psychologists
2. Explanation: Why is it happening? 1. Clinical Psychologist - help people with psychological disorder adjust to
 Finding explanations for behavior is a very important step in the process of the demands of life.
forming theories of behavior.
2. Clinical Neuropsychologist - using therapy, they help people who have
3. Prediction: When will it happen again? suffered from brain disease or injuries regain the abilities they lost as a result of
 Determining what will happen in the future. this brain damage.
4. Control: How can it be changed?

Introduction to Psychology | 1
 3. Counseling Psychologist - using specific counseling methods, they help
people cope with and overcome challenges in their lives, such as bereavement or
relationship issues.
4. Health Psychologist - study the effects of stress on health problems such
as headaches, cardiovascular disease, and career.
C. Applied Psychologists
1. Industrial/Organizational Psychologist - they work in the business world and
help make people more efficient and happier at their jobs.
2. User-experience Researcher/Designer - using psychological research
techniques, they create website and programs that are indispensable, engaging and
intuitive.
3. Human Factors Psychologist - most commonly working in the
transportation industry, they improve the design of signs, controls and interfaces
to improve safety on the roads and in the air.
4. Sports Psychologist - help people improve their performances in sports.
5. Consumer Psychologist - study the behavior of shoppers in an effort to
predict and influence their behavior.
6. Forensic Psychologist - apply principles of psychology to the criminal
justice system
HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
 2000 years ago - Philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and Descartes tried to
understand or explain the human mind and its connection to the physical body.
 400 BCE - Democritus suggested that we could think of behavior in terms of a
body and mind.
 1879 - Wilhelm Wundt, considered as the “father of modern psychology”, a
physiologist, attempted to apply scientific principles to the study of the human
mind.
o **Objective Introspection - the process of objectively examining and
measuring one’s own thoughts and mental activities.
 1894 - Margaret F. Washburn became famous for becoming the first woman to
receive a Ph.D. in psychology
**However, in the same year, Mary Whiton Calkins, who completed every
course and requirement for earning a Ph.D. but was denied that degree by
Harvard University because she was a woman and a guest speaker/student
only.
 1920 - Francis Cecil Sumner became the first African-American psychologist.
 1925 - Agustin Alonzo was the first Filipino psychologist.
 1940 - Hispanic psychologist George (Jorge) Sanchez conducted research in the
area of intelligence testing, focusing on the cultural biases in such tests
MAJOR SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY
The different schools of psychology represent the major theories within psychology.
1. Structuralism by Wilhelm Wundt
 The school of psychology that attempts to understand the structure of the mind by
breaking it down into its component pairs.
 It breaks conscious experiences into:
o Objective sensations (sight, taste)
o Subjective feelings (emotional responses, will)
o Mental images (memories, dreams)
 Introspection - careful self-examination and reporting of one’s conscious
experiences.
2. Functionalism by William James
 This focused on behavior in addition to mind and consciousness
 It was directed observations to supplement introspection
3. Gestalt Psychology by Max Wertheimer
 German word “gestalt” can be roughly translated as “unitary form” or
“pattern”
 The school of psychology that studies the ways in which the brain organizes
and structures our perceptions of the world.
 The whole is greater than the sum of its parts
 This emphasized the tendency to organize perceptions into wholes, and to
integrate separate stimuli into meaningful patterns
 Need to put details into a bigger picture
o Nature of Perception - the process by which we organize our sense
impressions and form meaningful representations of the world around
us.
Introduction to Psychology | 2
 o Gestalt Psychologists believe the brain organizes our perceptions of the
world by grouping elements together into unified or organized wholes
rather than as individual bits and pieces of sense experience.
4. Psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud
 It emphasized the importance of unconscious motives and conflict as
determinants of human behavior.
 It proposes that much of our lives is governed by unconscious ideas and
impulses the originate in childhood conflict.
5. Behaviorism by John Broadus Watson
 This focuses on learning observable behavior and relationships between stimuli
and response.
o Ivan Pavlov - made the Conditioned Response Experiment wherein it
also studies unrelated stimulus.
o B.F. Skinner - used reinforcement as a stimulus that follows a
response and increases the frequency of the response.
PSYCHOLOGY NOW: MODERN PERSPECTIVE
1. Psychodynamic Perspective
 In the 1940’s and 1950’s, psychodynamic theory dominated the practice of
psychotherapy and are influential in scientific psychology and the arts
 The focus may still include the unconscious mind and its influence over
conscious behavior and on early childhood experiences
o Neo-analysists or Neo-Freudians - are contemporary psychologists
who follow theories derived from Freud.
o Karen Horney and Erik Erikson focused lesson in unconscious
processes and more on conscious choice and self-esteem.
2. Behavioral Perspective
 Behaviorism is still also very influential
 This perspective focuses more on learning and behavior. It described and
explained in terms of stimulus-response relationship.
o Operant Conditioning - to explain how voluntary behavior is learned.
o In this theory, behavioral responses that are followed by pleasurable
consequences are strengthened, or reinforced.
3. Humanistic Perspective (a.k.a. Humanistic Existentialist Perspective)
 Often called as the “third force” in psychology.
 Humanism was really reaction in both psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism.
 Carl Roger and Abraham Maslow were the earliest and most famous founder of
this view.
4. Cognitive Perspective
 It has something to do with mental processes such as sensations and
perceptions, memory, intelligence, language, thought, and problem solving.
 The cognitive tradition has roots, in Socrates’ advice “Know thyself”.
5. Sociocultural Perspective
 It combines two areas of study: social psychology and cultural psychology.
 It is a view that focuses on the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and
socioeconomic status in behavior and mental processes.
o Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978) also used sociocultural
concepts in forming his sociocultural theory of children’s cognitive
development.
6. Biopsychological Perspective (a.k.a. Biological Perspective)
 It seeks the relationship between the brain hormones, heredity and evolution on the
one hand, and behavior and mental processes on the other.
o Biologically oriented psychologists also study the role of heredity in
behavior and mental processes such as psychological disorders,
criminal behavior and thinking.
7. Evolutionary Perspective
 It focuses on the biological bases for universal mental characteristics that all
humans share such as traits and fear.
 This approach may also overlap with biopsychology and the sociocultural
perspective.
 This perspective is designed by the same process of natural selection that of
Charles Darwin
PSYCHOLOGY: THE SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY
Scientific Method - a system for reducing bias and error in the measurement of data.
The five steps of the scientific method are a way to accomplish the goals of
psychology:
1. Perceiving the Question (GOP: Description)
2. Forming a Hypothesis (GOP: Explanation)
3. Testing the Hypothesis
o Methodologies, surveys, questionnaire, interviews, observation,
experiment
4. Drawing Conclusion (GOP: Prediction)
Introduction to Psychology | 3
 5. Report Your Results (GOP: Control) d) Snowball Sampling - this technique is used in the situations where the population is
o Recommendation completely unknown and rare.
o Limitation
o Replication
CORRELATIONS: FINDING RELATIONSHIPS
DESCRIPTIVE METHODS Correlation - is a measure of the relationship between two or more variables (anything
1. Naturalistic Observation - observe people or animals in natural environment. that can change or vary).
 Observer Effect - animals or people who know they are being watched will Correlation Coefficient
not behave normally.  It is a value produced by the correlation.
 It represents both direction and strength of relationship.
 Participant Observation - a technique in which researchers might use one-
 A statistic measure that calculates the strength of the relationship between two
way mirrors, or they might actually become participants in a group.
variables.
 Observer Bias - happens when the person doing the observing has a  It does not prove causation (variables can be related but you cannot assume that
particular opinion about what he or she expects to see. one of them causes the other to occur).
2. Laboratory Observation - observe people or animals in laboratory setting. TYPES OF CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
3. Case Studies - individual is studied in greater detail; researchers try to learn everything 1. Positive Correlation - between two variables is when an increase in one variable leads
they can about the individual. to an increase in the other variable and a decrease in one variable will see a decrease on the
4. Surveys - ask questions about topic researchers are studying via telephone, internet, or a other.
questionnaire 2. Negative Correlation - if there is an increase in one variable, the second variable will
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES show a decrease and vice versa.

Sample - is the subset of the population (representative sample) 3. No Correlation - this means a change in one variable may not necessarily see a change
in the other variable.
TWO MAJOR TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
1. Probability Sampling - uses randomization to make sure that every element of the
population gets an equal chance to be part of the selected sample. Experiment - the only research method that will allow researchers to determine the cause
a)Simple Random Sampling - a sample drawn so that each member of a population of a behavior by deliberately manipulating some variable and measuring changes in the
has an equal chance at being selected to participate. variable of interest.
b) Stratified Random Sampling - a sample drawn so that identified subgroups in the VARIABLES
population are represented proportionally in the sample. 1.Independent Variable - a condition in a scientific study that is manipulate so that its
2. Non-Probability Sampling - it does not rely on randomization and is more reliant on effects may be observed.
the researcher’s ability to select elements for a sample. 2.Dependent Variable - a measure of an assumed effect of an independent variable.
a) Convenience Sampling - the samples are selected based on the availability. GROUPS
b) Purposive Sampling - this is based at the intention or purpose of study. Only these 1.Experimental Groups - in experiments, groups whose members obtain the
elements will be selected from the population which suits the best for the purpose of treatment.
the study. 2.Control Groups - in experiments, groups whose members do not obtain the
c) Quota Sampling - this type of sampling depends on some pre-set standard. It selects treatment; other conditions are held constant.
the representative sample from the population.

Introduction to Psychology | 4
 The Nervous System
EXPERIMENTAL HAZARDS
THE ANATOMY OF A NEURON
1.Placebo Effect - a bogus treatment that has the appearance of being genuine.
2.Single-blind Study - in experimental terminology, subjects are unaware of whether  Neuron - a specialized cell of the nervous system that receives and transmits
or not one has received a treatment. messages.
3.Double-blind Study - a study in which neither the subjects nor the observers know  Dendrites - branch-like structures that receive neural impulses from other neurons.
who has received the treatment.  Soma/Cell Body - is responsible for maintaining the life of the cell.
ETHICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH  Axon - a long thin part of a neuron that transmits impulses to other neurons from
branching structures called terminal buttons (or axon terminals)
1. Ethics of Research with Humans  Terminal Buttons/Axon Terminals - are at the end of the neurons in small bulb-
 Ethical Review Committee and Ethical Standards like structures.
o promote individual dignity, welfare and scientific integrity  Nerves - group of axons.
o ensure no harm will come to the participants  Myelin Sheath - a fatty substance that encases and insulate axons, facilitating
 Informed Consent - a participant’s agreement to participate in research after transmission of neural impulses.
receiving information about the purposes of the study and the nature of the  Glial Cells
treatment. o cells that remove dead neurons
 Debrief - it explains the purposes and methods of a completed procedures to a o remove waste products from the nervous system
participant. o nourish and insulate neurons
2. Ethics of Research with Animals o directs the growth of neurons and play a role in neural transmission of
 Animals are used when research cannot be carried out with humans. messages
 Animals may be harmed, only when:  Neural Impulses - electrochemical discharge of a nerve cell or neuron.
o there is no alternative If the axon does not have sufficient myelin coating, a child will not be able to engage
o benefits of research justify the harm in activities requiring visual-motor coordination.
CRITICAL THINKING
 Critical Thinking - means making reasoned judgments.
 Reasoned - means that people’s judgments should be logical and well thought out.

1. There are few “truths” that do not need to be subjected to testing.

2. All evidence is not equal in quality. TWO TYPES OF NEURON
3. Just because someone is considered to be an authority or to have a lot of experience
does not make everything that person claims automatically true. 1. Afferent Neuron
4. Critical thinking requires an open mind.  transmits messages from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain.
 sensory neurons
2. Efferent Neurons
 transmits messages from the brain or spinal cord to muscles and glands.
 motor neurons
CHAPTER 2: THE
BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Peripheral Nervous System is in action when these neurons are at work.

Introduction to Psychology | 5
  Electrochemical - is the process by which neural impulses travel.  Somatic Nervous System - nervous system that transmits messages about sight,
 Resting Potential - an electrical potential across the neural membrane when it is sound, smell, taste, and tactile information.
not responding to other neurons.  Autonomic Nervous System - is classified into sympathetic and
 Action Potential - an electrical potential that provides the basis for the conduction parasympathetic.
of a neural impulse along an axon of a neuron. o Sympathetic - emotional responses
HOW MESSAGES VOYAGE FROM NEURON TO NEURON? o Parasympathetic - restoring the body's energy
1. Firing - conduction of neural impulse along the length of a neuron BRAIN IMAGING TECHNIQUES
2. Threshold - neurons will not fire unless the incoming messages combine to
reach a certain strength. 1. Electroencephalogram (EEG) – records brain waves (electrical activity),
3. All-or-none Principle - an occurrence that transmits an impulse of same relaxation, and neurological problem.
strength.  Ex.: It can tell feelings of relaxation.
Neurotransmitters - are often referred to as the body's chemical messengers.  Electroencephalograph - device used by researchers to see the EEG.
2. Computerized Axial Tomography (CT Scan) - three dimensional images of the
TWO TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS brain.
1. Excitatory - revolution up (booster ganon) 3. Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan) - method of brain study involves a
2. Inhibitory - decrease action (pang-kalma) computer-generated image of brain activity by tracing the amount of radioactive glucose
EXAMPLES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS metabolized in areas of the brain.
4. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - the person lies in a powerful magnetic
1. Acetylcholine (ACh) - a neurotransmitter that controls muscle contraction. field and is exposed to radio waves that cause parts of the brain to emit signals
2. Dopamine - a neurotransmitter that acts in the brain and affects to receive pleasure, 5. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) - observe brain while it
voluntary movement, learning and memory. works with repeated scans of the brain.
3. Norepinephrine - a neurotransmitter which is largely produced when there is an
emergency situation this activates the sympathetic nervous system. THE BRAIN
4. Serotonin - a neurotransmitter that is involved in emotional arousal and sleep.  Brain - takes the information received from the
o deficiency of serotonin can cause anxiety, mood disorders, eating disorders, senses, make sense out of it, makes decisions, and
and insomnia. sends commands out to the muscles and the rest
5. Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) - an inhibitory neurotransmitter that may of the body.
help anxiety reactions.
6. Glutamate - plays an important role in learning and memory, and may also be THE THREE MAJOR PARTS OF THE BRAIN
involved in the development of the nervous system and in synaptic plasticity (the 1. Cerebellum or Little Brain
ability of the brain to change connections among its neurons). o essential to balance and coordination.
o an example of excitatory neurotransmitter. o Ex.: Stumbling, loss of muscle tone
7. Endorphins - pain controlling o is divided into two hemispheres
o morphine 2. Pons
o an example of inhibitory neurotransmitter. o “bridge”
o is involved on attention, sleep, arousal, and respiration
 Hippocampus - a structure involved in the formation of memories. 3. Medulla
o involved in regulation of heart rate, respiration, circulation, and blood
 Central Nervous System - comprises the brain and spinal cord. pressure.
 Peripheral Nervous System - can be classified into somatic nervous system and **These are all connected to the spinal cord.
autonomic nervous system.

Introduction to Psychology | 6
OTHER PARTS OF THE BRAIN LEFT BRAIN OR RIGHT BRAIN
1. Left Brain - primarily logical and intellectual.
1. Cerebrum
 Ex.: Pattern recognition
 center of thinking.
2. Right Brain - intuitive, creative and emotional.
o **From the internet, Cerebral Cortex – the outer layer of cerebrum which
 Ex.: Good at analyzing details.
is made up of gray matter.
o White Matter – is the inner layer of the cerebrum below the gray matter. THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
o **From Ma’am Zambrano, Two Hemispheres – are the outer layer of the 1. Pituitary Gland
cerebrum.  lies below the hypothalamus
o Corpus Callosum - divides the two hemisphere in the middle.  labeled as "master gland"
 **Hormones secreted by pituitary gland regulates the growth and development of body
FOUR LOBES OF THE CEREBRUM: parts.
1. Occipital Lobe - primary vision  **Hypothalamus regulates pituitary gland activity.
2. Temporal Lobe - hearing and auditory functions 2. Pineal Gland
3. Parietal Lobe - somatosensory cortex  secretes the hormone melatonin
4. Frontal Lobe - motor cortex (muscles)  helps regulate sleep-wake cycle
 *Fissures - divides the four lobes.  may affect onset of puberty
3. Thyroid Gland
2. Thalamus - relay station for sensory information.  body's accelerator
3. Hypothalamus - secreted hormones that stimulate secretion of hormones by the  produces thyroxine which affects the metabolism
pituitary gland. o Hypothyroidism - deficiency in thyroxine.
 Ex.: Sweat, hunger 4. Adrenal Glands
4. Reticular Formation - involved in regulation of sleep and walking, when damage  located above the kidneys
severely can cause coma. o Cortical Steroids
LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS  increase resistance to stress
 promote muscle development
1. Wernicke’s area
o Epinephrine and norepinephrine - helps arouse body in threatening
 this area of the brain appears to be involved in understanding the meaning
situations.
of words.
2. Wernicke's Aphasia 5. Testes and Ovaries
 Testosterone
 a language disorder characterized by difficulty comprehending the meaning
o produced by testes (smaller amounts from adrenal gland)
of spoken language.
 lies in temporal lobe o male sex characteristics
3. Broca’s area  Estrogen and Progesterone
 is an area of the brain devoted to the production of speech. o produced by ovaries (smaller amounts from testes)
 this area allows a person to speak smoothly and fluently. o female sex characteristics
4. Broca's Aphasia EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
 a language disorder characterized by slow, laborious speech.  studies ways in which adaptation and natural selection (survival of the fittest)
 lies near the frontal lobe can be applied to mental processes and behavior.

Introduction to Psychology | 7
  suggests that social behavior evolves and can be transmitted from one
generation to the next.
 suggests that traits such as aggression and altruism help organisms survive and
thus reproduce.

References:

Ciccarelli, S. and White J. (2015). Psychology 4th Edition Pineda, B.Z. (2018). Notes in Introduction to Psychology

Torres, K.M. (2018). Lecture in Introduction to Psychology Zambrano, Z.M. (2018). Prezi Presentations and Syllabus in
Introduction to Psychology

Introduction to Psychology | 8