Introduction To Psychology Module

A SELF LEARNING MODULE
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How to Use the Module
Hello student! This is your self - learning module on Introduction to Psychology. I want you to
take this seriously since this module consists of different topics which are deemed essential
as you progress in your course in BS Psychology. Please take note of the following steps for
you to have the best learning experience:
1. Answer the pre - test before exploring the whole contents of the module.
2. Begin the module by reading the introduction and internalizing the objectives so that
you will know what to expect.
3. Read the instructions carefully when you answer the activities. Do not move on to the
next activity if you have not fully answered the task on hand. If you have clarifications
regarding the lesson or the instructions, do not hesitate to contact your instructor.
4. All outputs should be placed on a separate sheet (either short sized bondpaper or
yellow paper) depending on your resources. If you plan to have it handwritten, please
do write legibly. You may also opt to have it printed.
5. All learning activities are graded and should be submitted to the instructor’s
designated dates via Google Classroom or you may personally hand in your answer
sheets enclosed in a long brown envelope at the school campus if you do not have
internet connection at home.
6. Your outputs must be done with honesty and uprightness.
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Class Schedule
Week 1 April 26 – 30, 2021 Pretest / Lesson 1

Week 2 May 3 – 7, 2021 Lesson 2 / Lesson 3
Week 3 May 10 – 14, 2021 Lesson 4 / Lesson 5
Week 4 May 17 – 21, 2021 Midterm Examination / Lesson 6
Week 5 May 24 – 28, 2021 Lesson 7
Week 6 May 31 – June 4, 2021 Lesson 8 / Final Examination / Post Test
Guidelines in Groupings
For your dyad
Look for a partner you are comfortable to work with. He/she will be your pair until the end of
the semester.
For your group
Form a group with 6 members each. You will be groupmates for the activities which require
groupings until the end of the semester.
Group 1 – Fechner
Group 2 – Wundt
Group 3 – James
Group 4 – Watson
Group 5 – Skinner
Group 6 – Wertheimer
Group 7 – Freud
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Guidelines in Uploading Outputs on Google Classroom
1. Use doc., docx., or pdf file types only

2. Do not forget to include the names of your pair or group on the document
3. Upload your output with this format:
Individual
Last Name_Lesson2_Explore
Example
Cooper_Lesson2_Explore
Dyad
Last Name &Last Name_Lesson1_Engage
Example
Avery&Wilson_Lesson1_Engage
Group
Group Name_Lesson1_Elaborate
*group leaders are tasked to upload group outputs
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Cover Page ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 1
How to Use the Module ……………………………………………………………………………………………..…… 3
Class Schedule ….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..… 4
Guidelines in Groupings ………………………………………………………………………………………………..… 4
Guidelines in Uploading to Google Classroom …………………………………………………………………. 5
Pre – Test ……………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………….. 7
Lesson 1: The Nature of Psychology and the Neurobiological Basis of Behavior ……………… 12
Lesson 2: Human Development ………………………………………………………………………………………. 29
Lesson 3: Emotion and Perception ………………………………………………………………………………….. 42
Lesson 4: Consciousness and its Altered States ……………………………………………………………….. 50
Lesson 5: Thinking, Learning and Memory …………………………………………..………………………….. 56
Lesson 6: Personality ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 65
Lesson 7: Health, Stress, and Coping ……………………………………………………………………………….. 75
Lesson 8: Abnormal and Social Psychology ……………………………………………………………………… 82
Post Test …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 95
References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 100
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Pre Test
Directions: Choose the best answer.
1. Psychology is defined as the scientific study of

a. Behavior and mental processes
b. Diagnosis and treatment of behavioral disorders
c. Conscious and unconscious mental processes
d. The mind
2. What distinguished Wilhelm Wundt’s contribution from other contributions to

psychology?
a. He wrote the first textbook of psychology
b. He defined psychology as the science of behavior
c. He established psychology as a laboratory science
d. He studied insight in lower animals
3. __________ psychologists make technical systems such as automobile dashboards

and computer keyboards more user friendly.
a. Experimental
b. Consumer
c. Human factors
d. Industrial
4. Jean, a divorced mother with two children, married Harry, a widower with a teenage
daughter. From the onset of her relationship with Harry, Jean had difficulty in relating
to his daughter. Once married, the family problems between stepmother and
stepdaughter became exacerbated. Who would be the most appropriate to consult?
a. A Developmental Psychologist
b. An Educational Psychologist
c. A Counseling Psychologist
d. An Organizational Psychologist
5. The issues of ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status are the concerns of the
_____________ perspective.
a. Sociocultural
b. Humanistic – Existential
c. Psychoanalytic
d. Social – Cognitive
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6. The axons of the ____________ make up the optic nerve, which exits the eye at the
____________.
a. Bipolar cells; fovea
b. Ganglion cells; blind spot
c. Bipolar cells; blind spot
d. Horizontal cells, fovea
7. A neuron can fire up to a limit of about ___________ times per second.

a. 40
b. 400
c. 4,000
d. 40,000
8. Ellen loses weight and becomes somewhat agitated. Her doctor is most likely to
theorize that she is suffering from a deficiency of
a. Epinephrine
b. Dopamine
c. Cortisol
d. Thyroxin
9. Which neurotransmitter is associated with depression?

a. Serotonin
b. Dopamine
c. Glutamate
d. GABA
10. Which of the following are children most likely to “outgrow”?

a. Insomnia
b. Bed – wetting
c. Sleep apnea
d. Narcolepsy
11. Elyse is a college student who has developed a tolerance to heroin and experiences
withdrawal symptoms whenever she doesn’t have a “fix” at least every eight hours.
She feels that she has lost control and has to organize her life around her habit. She
would be classified as having
a. Substance abuse
b. Substance dependence
c. Substance use
d. Anxiety disorder
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12. Roberto kept seeing signs on the highway advertising Pizza Corner. He started to
salivate at the possibility of having a pizza. The signs were
a. Unconditioned stimuli
b. Unconditioned responses
c. Conditioned stimuli
d. Conditioned responses
13. Which of the following best illustrates operant conditioning according to Skinner?
a. A dog salivates at the sound of a dinner bell
b. A cat comes running when it hears the sound of a can opener
c. A dolphin is given a fish every time it jumps through a hoop
d. The mating behavior of salmon
14. Johnny watches TV violence for an hour or two a day, but he is not violent outside the
home. Then one day, Billy attacks him on the way home from school, and Johnny
imitates the behavior he saw on TV to fight Billy off and teach Billy never to attack him
again. Although Johnny had not shown violent behavior until he was attacked, we can
assume that when he was watching TV, he was engaging in
a. Latent learning
b. Shaping
c. Discriminating training
d. Operant conditioning
15. Jamie’s mother was concerned that her 4 year old daughter overregularized plurals
and tenses. She took Jamie to Dr. Acton, a noted learning theorist. Who advised her
to
a. Wait for Jamie’s speech to correct itself
b. Take her to a speech therapist
c. Correct her grammar through imitation and repetition
d. Begin instruction in another language
16. Fear involves activation of the ____________ nervous system, but depression involves
activation of the ______________ nervous system.
a. Peripheral; somatic
b. Somatic; peripheral
c. Parasympathetic; sympathetic
d. Sympathetic; parasympathetic
17. Erikson labeled the life crisis of the middle years as

a. Trust vs mistrust
b. Generativity vs stagnation
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c. Identity vs stagnation
d. Midlife transition vs despair
18. The five – factor model includes which five basic personality factors?
a. Depression, obsessiveness, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness
b. Narcissism, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness
c. Extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness
d. Extraversion, psychosis, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness
19. Moderators of stress include all of the following except

a. Pretending that stressors do not exist
b. Psychological hardiness
c. Sense of humor
d. Predictability and control
20. Candace has an internal locus of control. This means that she
a. Can only control her inner emotions
b. Can only control her outward appearance
c. Feels she is controlled by others
d. Feels she can control her own life
21. Boris has been under a great deal of stress. Which of the following is most likely true?
a. His immune system is weakened
b. His immune system is strengthened
c. His immune system is unaffected
d. None of the above
22. The news just reported that a hurricane is headed toward your home. You feel anxious
and can’t decide what to do first to prepare. This response is indicative of
a. Unusual behavior
b. Normal behavior
c. Abnormal behavior
d. Faulty behavior
23. Imagery in the absence of external stimulation is the definition of _____________,

which are often observed in people with schizophrenia.
a. Rapid flight of ideas
b. Delusions
c. Hallucinations
d. Stress disorder
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24. The self – serving bias is the tendency to
a. Repeat ourselves when we think we’re right
b. Take care of our own needs first, and worry about others later
c. Credit our successes to internal, dispositional factors, and our failures to
situational influences
d. Describe our successes in greater detail than our failures
25. One major reason that group tend to take greater risks than their members would
take as individual is
a. Diffusion of responsibility
b. The reciprocity norm
c. Group intelligence
d. All of these
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LESSON 1: THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY AND THE NEUROBIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR
Introduction
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. The word “psychology” comes from
the Greek words “psyche,” meaning life, and “logos,” meaning explanation. Psychology is a
popular major for students, a popular topic in the public media, and a part of our everyday
lives. This lesson provides an introduction to the broad field of psychology and the many
approaches that psychologists take to understanding human behavior. Also, this covers a
range of concepts, including understanding the development of two parts of the nervous
system: peripheral and central nervous systems. The lion’s share of the focus is on the latter
as there are many terms and concepts related to the various divisions and structures of the
central nervous system, including the brain
two parts of the nervous system: peripheral and central nervous system.
peripheral -
Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, students will be able to
1. Explain why using our intuition or common sense about everyday behavior is
insufficient for a complete understanding of the causes of behavior.
2. Describe the difference between values and facts and explain how the scientific
method is used to differentiate between the two.
3. Discover the variety of fields in which psychologists work and the careers that are
available to people with psychology degrees.
4. Describe the nervous system, including neurons, neural impulses, and
neurotransmitters.
5. List the structures of the brain and their functions.
6. Describe evolutionary psychology and the connections between heredity, behavior,
and mental processes.
Engage – Learning Task
Directions: Folklore, common sense, or nonsense? Discuss within your group and identify
whether the following statements are truth or fiction. Check your answers as we go through
with our lesson.
1. More than 2,000 years ago, Aristotle wrote a book on psychology with contents similar
to the module you are now reading.
2. The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates suggested a research method that is still used
in psychology.
3. Men receive the majority of doctoral degrees in psychology.
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4. Even though she had worked to complete all the degree requirements, the first female
president of the American Psychological Association turned down the doctoral degree
that was offered to her.
5. You could survey millions of voters and still not accurately predict the outcome of a
presidential election.
6. In many experiments, neither the participants nor the researchers know who is
receiving the real treatment and who is not.
Explore – Learning Task
Directions: Read the story of Phineas Gage by clicking the link below.
https://www.uakron.edu/gage/story.dot
Meet with your group virtually and discuss the following guide questions:
1. Was Phineas Gage lucky or unlucky? Why or why not?

2. What is most likely the reason that Gage’s personality changed after the accident?
Upload a screenshot of your discussion on Google Classroom.
Explain
Before you begin reading this section, click on the link and watch this informative video to
give you a glimpse of the nature of psychology.
Intro to Psychology: Crash Course Psychology #1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vo4pMVb0R6M
Psychology as a Science
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Like other sciences,
psychology seeks to describe, explain, predict, and control the events it studies. The goal of
controlling behavior and mental processes does not mean that psychologists seek ways to
make people do their bidding, like puppets on strings. Rather, psychologists seek to
understand the factors that influence behavior and apply this knowledge for the public good.
Psychology attempts to understand the role human behavior plays in social dynamics while
incorporating physiological and neurological processes into its conceptions of mental
functioning. Why do you think these people are behaving the way they are?
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What Psychologists Do
Fields of Psychology
Psychology is a broad field of study. Hence, psychologists are found in a number of
specialties.
Clinical Psychology Clinical Psychologists evaluate psychological
disorders through the use of behavioral
interviews and psychological tests.
Counseling Psychology Counseling Psychologists like clinical

psychologists, use interviews and tests to
define their clients’ problems. Their clients
typically have adjustment problems but not
serious psychological disorders.
School Psychology School Psychologists are employed by

school systems to identify and assist
students who have problems that interfere
with learning. They help schools make
decisions about the placement of students
in special classes.
Educational Psychology Educational Psychologists like school

psychologists, attempt to facilitate learning
but usually focus on course planning and
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instructional methods for a school systems
rather than on individual children.
Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychologists study the

physical, cognitive, social, and emotional
changes that occur throughout the lifespan.
They attempt to sort out the influences of
heredity and the environment on
development.
Personality Psychology Personality Psychologists identify and

measure human traits and determine
influences on human thought processes,
feelings, and behavior.
Social Psychology Social Psychologists are concerned with the

nature and causes of individuals’ thoughts,
feelings, and behavior in social situations.
Environmental Psychology Environmental Psychologists study the ways

that people and the environment, both
natural and manmade, influence one
another.
Experimental Psychology Experimental Psychologists specialize in

basic processes such as the nervous system,
sensation, and perception, learning and
memory, thought, motivation, and emotion.
Industrial Psychology Industrial Psychologists focus on the

relationships between people and work.
Organizational Psychology Organizational Psychologists study the

behavior of people in the organizations such
as businesses.
Human Factors Psychology Human Factors Psychologists make

technical systems such as automobile
dashboards and computer keyboards more
user friendly.
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Consumer Psychology Consumer Psychologists study the behavior
of shoppers in an effort to predict and
influence their behavior. They advise store
managers on how to layout the aisles of a
supermarket in ways that boost impulse
buying, how to arrange window displays to
attract customers, and how to make
newspaper ads and TV commercials more
persuasive.
Health Psychology Health Psychologists study the effects of

stress on health problems such as
headaches, cardiovascular disease, and
cancer. They also guide clients toward
healthier behavior patterns, such as
exercising and quitting smoking.
Forensic Psychology Forensic Psychologists apply psychology to

the criminal justice system. They deal with
legal matters such as whether a defendant
was sane when he or she committed a
crime. They may also treat psychologically ill
offenders, consult with attorneys on
matters such as picking a jury, and analyze
offenders’ behavior and mental processes.
They may conduct research on matters
ranging from evaluation of eyewitness
testimony to methods of interrogation.
Sports Psychology Sport Psychologists help athletes

concentrate on their performance with the
use of cognitive strategies like positive
visualization.
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History of Psychology
Aristotle (384 – 32 B.C.E.)
Aristotle argued that human behavior, like the movements of the stars and the seas, is subject
to rules and laws. He delved into his subject matter topic by topic: personality, sensation and
perception, thought, intelligence, needs and motives, feelings and emotion, and memory.
Democritus (400 B.C.E.)
Around 400 BCE, Democritus suggested that we could think of behavior in terms of a body
and a mind. He emphasized that our behavior is influenced by external simulation. He was
one of the first to raise the question of whether there is free will or choice.
“Where do the influences of others end and our “real selves” begin?”
Socrates
Socrates suggested that we should rely on rational thought and introspection or the careful
examination of one’s own thoughts and emotions to gain self – knowledge. He also pointed
out that people are social creatures who influence one another.
Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801 – 1887)
Fechner published his landmark book, the Elements of Psychophysics, which showed how
physical events are related to psychological sensation and perception. He also showed how
we can scientifically measure the effect of these events.
Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt, the German psychologist, and his students, founded the school of
psychology called structuralism. Structuralism attempted to break conscious experience
down into objective sensations, such as sight or taste, and subjective feelings, such as
emotional responses, and mental images such as memories or dreams.
“What are the pieces that make up thinking and experience?”
Functionalism
William James, the founder of the school of functionalism, became a major figure in the
development of psychology in the United States. Functionalists focuses on behavior as well
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as the mind or consciousness. They look at how our experience helps us function more
adaptively in our environments.
“How do behavior and mental processes help people adapt to the requirements of their
lives?”
Behaviorism
Behaviorism is the school of psychology that focuses on learning observable behavior. The
term observable refers to behaviors that are observable by means of specialized instruments,
such as heart rate, blood pressure, and brain waves.
John Broadus Watson is the founder of American can behaviorism. Watson was asked to
consider the contents of a rat’s “mind” as one of the requirements for his doctoral degree,
which he received from University of Chicago in 1903. He assumed that if psychology was to
be a natural science like physics or chemistry, it must limit itself to observable, measurable
events. B.F. Skinner on the other hand, believe that organisms learn to behave in certain ways
because they have been reinforced for doing so. Hence, their behavior has a positive
outcome.
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt psychology became prominent in Germany in the 1920s. in the 1930s, the three
founders of the school, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler left Europe to
escape the Nazi threat and carried on their work in the United States. Gestalt psychologists
focused on perception and how perception influences thinking and problem solving. The
German word Gestalt translates roughly to “patter” or “organized whole.” They showed that
we tend to perceive separate pieces of information as integrated wholes depending on the
contexts in which they occur. They demonstrated that much learning, especially in problem
solving, is accomplished by insight, not by mechanical repetition.
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis is the name of both the theory of personality and the method of
psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud. As a theory of personality, psychoanalysis
proposes that much of our lives is governed by unconscious ideas and impulses that originate
in childhood conflicts.
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How Today’s Psychologists View Behavior and Mental Processes
Today, we no longer find psychologists who describe themselves as structuralists or

functionalists. Many contemporary psychologists in the behaviorist tradition look on
themselves as social – cognitive theorists. The history of psychological thought has taken
many turns, and contemporary psychologists differ in their approaches.
The Biological Perspective
Psychologists with a biological perspective seek the links between the activity of the brain,
the activity of hormones, and heredity, on the one hand, and behavior and mental processes
on the other.
The Cognitive Perspective
Psychologists with a cognitive perspective venture into the realm of mental processes to
understand human nature. They investigate the ways in which we perceive and mentally
represent the world, how we learn, remember the past, plan for the future, solve problems,
form judgments, make decisions, and use language. Cognitive psychologists, in short, study
those things we refer to as the mind.
The Humanistic – Existential Perspective
Humanism stresses the human capacity for self – fulfillment and the central roles of
consciousness, self-awareness, and decision making. Humanists believe that self-awareness,
experience, and choice permit us, to a large extent, to "invent ourselves" as we progress
through life. Consciousness, our sense of being in the world, is seen as the force that unifies
our personalities. Existentialism views people as free to choose and as being responsible for
choosing ethical conduct.
The Psychodynamic Perspective
In the 1940s and 1950s, psychodynamic theory dominated the field of psychotherapy and
influenced scientific psychology and the arts. Renowned artists and writers consulted
psychodynamic therapists to liberate the expression of their unconscious ideas. Today,
Freud's influence is still felt, although it no longer dominates psychotherapy. Contemporary
psychologists who follow theories derived from Freud are likely to call themselves
neoanalysts.
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Perspectives on Learning
Many contemporary psychologists study the effects of experience on behavior. Learning, to

them, is the essential factor in describing, explaining, predicting, and controlling behavior.
The term learning has different meanings to psychologists of different persuasions, however.
Some students of learning find roles for consciousness and insight while others do not. This
distinction is found today among those who adhere to the behavioral and social cognitive
perspectives.
The Sociocultural Perspective
The sociocultural perspective addresses many of the ways in which people differ from one
another. It studies the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on
behavior and mental processes. Studying cultures other than their own helps psychologists
understand the roles of culture in behavior, beliefs, values, and attitudes.
BIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY
The Nervous System: On Being Wired
The nervous system is a system of nerves involved in thought processes, heartbeat, visual –
motor coordination, and so on. It contains the brain, the spinal cord, and other parts that
make it possible for us to receive information from the world outside and to act on that world.
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Neurons: Into the Fabulous Forest
Within our brain lies a fabulous forest of nerve cells called neurons. These are specialized cells
of the nervous system that conduct impulses. Neurons can be visualized as having branches,
trunks, and roots. They lie alongside one another but they can also lie end to end, with their
roots intertwined with the branches of the neurons that lie below. They receive messages
from a number of sources such as light, other neurons, and pressure on the skin, and they can
pass these messages along in a complex biological dance.
Glial Cells
Glial cells remove dead neurons and waste products from the nervous stem, nourish and
insulate neurons, form a fatty, insulating substance called mylen, and play a role in the neural
transmission of messages.
Dendrites
Dendrites are rootlike structures, attached to the cell body of a neuron, that receive impulses,
or incoming messages, from other neurons.
Axons
An axon is a long, thin part of a neuron that transmits impulses to other neurons from bulb –
shaped structures called axon terminals or terminal buttons.
Myelin
A myelin is a fatty substance that encases and insulates axons, facilitating transmission of
neural impulses.
Afferent Neurons
Afferent neurons are neurons that transmit messages from sensory receptors to the spinal
cord and brain.
Efferent Neurons
Efferent neurons are neurons that transmit messages from the brain or spinal cord to muscles
and glands.
The Neural Impulse: “The Body Electric”
Neural impulses are messages that travel within neurons at somewhere between two (in
nonmyelinated neurons) and 225 miles an hour (in myelinated neurons).
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An Electrochemical Voyage
The process by which neural impulses travel is electrochemical. Chemical changes take place
within neurons that cause an electrical charge to be transmitted along their lengths.
Action Potential
Action potential refers to the electrical impulse that provides the basis for the conduction of
a neural impulse along an axon of a neuron. The inside of the cell axon at the disturbed area
has an action potential of 110 millivolts. This action potential, added to the – 70 millivolts that
characterizes the resting potential, brings the membrane voltage to a positive charge of about
+30 to +40 millivolts.
Resting Potential
Resting potential refers to the electrical potential across the neural membrane when it is not
responding to other neurons. This potential is about – 70 millivolts in relation to the body
fluid outside the cell membrane.
The Synapse: On Being Well – Connected
A neuron relays its message to another neuron across a junction called a synapse. A synapse
consists of an axon terminal from the transmitting neuron, a dendrite, or the body of a
receiving neuron, and a fluid – filled gap between the two that is called the synaptic cleft.
Neurotransmitters: The Chemical Keys to Communication
Sacs called synaptic vesicles in the axon terminals contain neurotransmitters, the chemical
keys to communication. When a neural impulse (action potential) reaches the axon terminal,
the vesicles release varying amounts of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. From there,
they influence the receiving neuron. Neurotransmitters are involved in the physical processes
such as muscle contraction and psychological processes such as thoughts and emotions.
Acetylcholine (ACh)
The Acetylcholine controls muscle contractions. It is excitatory at synapses between nerves

and muscles that involve voluntary movement but inhibitory at the heart and some other
locations. ACh is also normally prevalent in a part of the brain called the hippocampus, a
structure involved in the formation of memories. When the amount of ACh available to the
brain decreases, as in Alzheimer's disease, memory formation is impaired.
Dopamine
Dopamine acts in the brain and affects ability to perceive pleasure, voluntary movement, and
learning and memory. Deficiencies of dopamine are linked to Parkinson's disease, in which
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people progressively lose control over their muscles. The psychological disorder
schizophrenia is characterized by confusion and false perceptions, and it has been linked to
dopamine. People with schizophrenia may have more receptor sites for dopamine in an area
of the brain that is involved in emotional responding. For this reason, they may "overutilize"
the dopamine available in the brain. Overutilization is connected with hallucinations and
disturbances of thought and emotion.
Norepinephrine
Norepinephrine is produced largely by neurons in the brain stem and acts both as
neurotransmitter and as a hormone. It is an excitatory neurotransmitter that speeds up the
heartbeat and other body processes and is involved in general arousal, learning and memory,
and eating. Excesses and deficiencies of norepinephrine have been linked to mood disorders.
Deficiencies of both ACh and norepinephrine particularly impair memory formulation.
Serotonin
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that is involved in emotional arousal and sleep. Deficiencies

of serotonin have been linked to eating disorders, alcoholism, depression, aggression, and
insomnia. The drug LSD decreases the action of serotonin is also believed to increase the
utilization of dopamine, which may be the mechanism by which it produces hallucinations.
Gamma – Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
Gamma-aminobutyric acid is another neurotransmitter of great interest to psychologists. One

reason is that it is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that may help calm anxiety reactions.
Tranquilizers and alcohol may quell anxiety by binding with GABA receptors and amplifying
its effects. One class of antianxiety drug may also increase the sensitivity of receptor sites to
GABA. Other studies link deficiencies of GABA to depression.
Endorphins
Endorphins are inhibitory neurotransmitters. Endorphins occur naturally in the brain and in
the bloodstream and are similar to the narcotic morphine in their functions and effects.
Endorphins may also increase our sense of competence, enhance the functioning of the
immune system, and be connected with the pleasurable "runner's high."
The Nervous System
The mammalian nervous system is a complex biological organ, which enables many animals
including humans to function in a coordinated fashion. The original design of this system is
preserved across many animals through evolution; thus, adaptive physiological and
behavioral functions are similar across many animal species.
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The Development of the Nervous System
The nervous tissue that forms the brain develops over the course of gestation: As the embryo
continues to develop, so does the neural tube. It balloons up rostral (towards the head). At
day 40, we can see clear distinctions of the forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain and the spinal cord.
By 50 and 100 days the cerebral hemispheres are developing, and thereafter they cover the
majority of the brain area.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
The CNS is divided into forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain, and each division performs a
variety of tasks. For example, the cerebral cortex in the forebrain houses sensory, motor, and
associative areas that gather sensory information, process information for perception and
memory, and produce responses based on incoming and inherent information.
Brain
The brain is responsible for all behaviors, thoughts, and experiences.
Forebrain
The forebrain is the forward – portion of the brain. It consists of the telencephalon and
diencephalon.
Midbrain
The midbrain is the smallest region of the central nervous system and acts as a relay station
for visual and auditory information. It is also referred to as the mesencephalon.
Hindbrain
The hindbrain is the rear lower portion of the brain. It is comprised of the metencephalon and
myelencephalon.
Limbic System
The limbic system is a collective name for structures involved in emotion, motivation, and
emotional associations with memory. It primarily refers to these structures: amygdala,
hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia and cingulate gyrus.
Amygdala
Amygdala is an almond-shaped set of neurons that is part of the limbic system and located in
the temporal lobe. It is involved in processing and expression of arousal and emotions like
anger and fear.
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Basal Ganglia
Basal Ganglia is a group of nuclei lying deep in the frontal lobes and is part of the limbic
system. It is involved in voluntary movement and coordination.
Cingulate Gyrus
Cingulate Gyrus is a component of the limbic system that lies just above the corpus callosum.
It is responsible for directing attention to emotionally significant events for associating
memories to smells and pain.
Cerebral Hemispheres
The cerebral cortex is divided into left and right hemisphere and connected by a dense bundle
of white matter tracts known as the corpus callosum. There are some functions that are
lateralized, or primarily under the control of one hemisphere. Both hemispheres, on the other
hand, control motor and sensory functions, although the sensory and motor cortices have a
contralateral representation. Split-brain patients are people whose two cerebral hemispheres
are not connected via the corpus callosum as a result of surgery or genetic abnormality.
Studying these patients helps us understand the function of the two hemispheres.
Four Lobes
Parietal Lobe
This is an area of the cerebrum at the top of the head, but towards the back, and is involved
with somatosensory and gustatory sensation. It includes the somatosensory strip, which is
like a map of the entire body and receives input from the skin and muscles. It also contains
the gustation strip, or the second somatosensory cortex, which is involved with our
experiences of taste.
Temporal Lobe
This area contains the primary auditory and olfactory cortexes, brain regions devoted to
hearing and smell. This is proximally located to these areas is Wernicke’s area, which is
responsible for language comprehension and is connected to Broca’s area.
Occipital Lobe
This is located in the back of the cerebrum and houses the primary visual cortex, which is
responsible for vision.
25
Frontal lobe
The frontal lobe is the region of the cerebrum closest to the forehead. In the left frontal lobe,
you will find Broca’s area, a brain area responsible for language production. This is also
involved with central and executive functions, such as working memory.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The PNS controls volitional (somatic nervous system) and nonvolitional (autonomic nervous
system) behaviors using cranial and spinal nerves.
Divided into Two Systems:
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
The ANS is primarily responsible for involuntary functions. It is further divided into the
following systems, which work in tandem to regulate our “fight-or-flight” response.
Sympathetic Nervous System
The Sympathetic Nervous System is responsible for energizing muscles and glands, causing
the release of hormones and energy.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
The Parasympathetic Nervous System is responsible for conserving energy and reducing the
muscle and gland activity.
Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
The SNS is under the control of the individual, allowing humans to maneuver their own body
muscles. It consists of 12 pairs of cranial and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
Brain Imaging Techniques
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
The EEG measures electrical activity in the brain through the placement of a series of
electrodes on the scalp.
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Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
The CAT and MRI are modern noninvasive techniques used to capture pictures of detailed
structures in the brain by using X-rays or magnetic energy.
Positive Emission Tomography (PET)
The PET is an invasive procedure in which an individual’s brain is injected with radio-labeled
isotopes. The isotopes enter the active nerve cells and emit positrons, which help record
blood flow in various brain regions to help scientists assess which areas were active during a
given task.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Techniques (fMRIs)
fMRIs are noninvasive brain imaging techniques that visibly document changes in blood flow
to areas of the brain during a task.
Diffuse Optical Imaging (DOI)
The DOI directs infrared light into the brain and measures the light that comes back out. As
the properties of light change when it passes through oxygenated blood or active neurons,
they can indicate which brain areas were engaged in a particular task. This can be set-up to
have high temporal and spatial resolution.
Elaborate – Learning Task
**This will be done after the lecture, during the synchronous session**
Directions: Write down five basic personality traits or skills that you think apply to you.
Observe the phrenology chart (provided by your instructor) and feel your own head starting
with the front of your scalp. Circle on the chart any bumps or depressions on the left or right
side. Then slowly work your fingers back, covering the middle, down by the ears, at the back
of your head, and so on. Afterwards, write down the traits that the phrenology chart suggests
you ought to possess (areas of bumps) or not possess (depressions). Finally, compare the list
to the one you made originally about yourselves.
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Evaluate – Quiz
Directions: For 30 minutes, discuss within your group how psychologists study behavior and
mental processes. Choose only three (3) from the nine (9) choices and describe them
rigorously.
a. Critical Thinking
b. The Scientific Method
c. Samples and Populations
d. Problems in Generalizing from Psychological Research
e. Methods of Observation
f. Correlation
g. The Experimental Method
h. Ethics of Research with Humans
i. Ethics of Research with Animals
28
LESSON 3: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
Change is inevitable. As humans, we constantly grow throughout our lifespans, from

conception to death. Individuals undergo many physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, and
emotional changes throughout life, and these changes are the ones that developmental
psychologists study.
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to
1. Explain prenatal development and the role that sex hormones play.
2. Elucidate the physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional development of
children, adolescents, and adults.
3. Describe the types of parenting styles.
4. Explicate Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development and identify the basic
conflicts that may arise on each stage.
5. Expound the emerging factors that serve as psychological strengths as each individual
successfully deal with conflict.
with our lesson.
1. Your heart started beating when you were only one fifth of an inch long and weighed
a fraction of an ounce.
2. Prior to six months or so of age, “out of sight” is literally “out of mind.”
3. The architect, Frank Lloyd Wright designed New York’s innovative spiral – shaped
Guggenheim Museum when he was 65 years old.
4. Alzheimer’s disease is a normal part of aging.
5. Most parents suffer from the “Empty – Nest Syndrome” when their youngest child
leaves home.
Directions: Click on the link and watch this informative video to give you a glimpse of the
human development.
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Major Principles of Human Development and Approaches
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WrNmnQCPjAM
After you’re done watching the clip, cite atleast five (5) major points from the video together
with your pair and share it with the class.
Explain
Prenatal Development
The most dramatic gains in height and weight occur during prenatal development. Within
nine months, the newly conceived organism develops from a nearly microscopic cell to a
newborn child about twenty inches long.
A. The three stages are:
1. Zygote: Conception to 2 weeks
2. Embryo: 2 to 8 weeks
3. Fetus: 8 weeks to birth
B. This chart shows detailed month-by-month changes:
First Month • Fertilization occurs

• Zygote implants itself in the lining of the uterus ending the zygote
period
• Rapid cell division occurs
• Embryonic stage lasts from end of the 2nd week to end of the 8th
week
• Cells differentiate into three distinct layers: the ectoderm, the
mesoderm, and the endoderm
• Nervous system begins to develop
• Embryo is 1/2 inch long
Second Month • Heart and blood vessels form
• Head area develops rapidly
• Eyes begin to form detail
• Internal organs grow, especially the digestive system
• Sex organs develop rapidly and sex is distinguished
• Arms and legs form and grow
• Heart begins to beat faintly
• Embryo is 1 inch long and weighs 1/10 ounce
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Third Month • Head growth occurs rapidly
• Bones begin to form rapidly, which marks the transition to the
fetal stage
• The digestive organs begin to function
• Arms, legs, and fingers make spontaneous movements
• Fetus is 3 inches long and weighs 1 ounce
Fourth Month • Lower parts of the body show rapid growth
• Bones are distinct in X-ray films
• Reflex movement becomes more active
• Heartbeat detected by physician
• Sex organs are fully formed
• Fetus is 7 inches long and weighs 5 ounces
Fifth Month • Mother begins to feel reflex movements
• A fine, downy fuzz covers the entire body
• Vernix (a waxy coating) collects over the body
• Ears and nose begin to develop cartilage
• Fingernails and toenails begin to appear
• Fetus shows hiccups, thumb sucking, and kicking
• Fetus is 12 inches long and weighs 14 ounces
Sixth Month • Eyes and eyelids fully formed
• Fat is developing under the skin
• Fetus is 14 inches long and weighs 2 pounds
Seventh Month • Cerebral cortex of brain develops rapidly
Eighth Month • Subcutaneous fat is deposited for later use
• Fingernails reach beyond the fingertips
Ninth Month • Hair covering the entire body is shed
• Organ systems function actively
• Vernix is present over the entire body
• Fetus settles into position for birth
• Neonate is 21 inches long and weighs 7 pounds
Developments in Each Stage

Physical Cognitive Moral Social Emotional
Development Development Development Development Development
Childhood ✓ Dramatic ✓ Sensorimotor ✓ Preconvention ✓ Zone of ✓ Trust vs mistrust
gains in height stage (object al level proximal ✓ Attachment
and weight permanence) (obedience development (attempts to
✓ Reflexes and (range of task maintain contact
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✓ Motor ✓ Preoperational punishment; that the child or nearness or
development stage good behavior can carry out shows anxiety
✓ Perceptual (egocentricism) allows people with the help when separated)
development ✓ Concrete to satisfy their of someone
(fixation time) operational stage needs and who is more
(decentration and those of skilled)
subjective others) ✓ Scaffolding
judgments) ✓ Conventional (temporary
level (right support
and wrong are provided by a
judged by parent or
conformity to teacher to a
conventional; child who is
showing learning to
respect to perform a
authority) task)
Adolescence ✓ Appearance of ✓ Formal ✓ Post ✓ Striving for ✓ Ego identity vs role

secondary operations conventional independence diffusion
sexual (classification, level (moral ✓ Adolescence
characteristics logical thought, reasoning is sexuality
(body hair, and ability to based on own (sexual
deepening of hypothesize) moral behaviors –
voice in males, standards) peer pressure)
and rounding of
the breasts and
hips for females)
Emerging ✓ Young adult ✓ Creativity ✓ Young adults ✓ Intimacy vs

Adulthood (height of ✓ Memory establish isolation
sensory functioning themselves as ✓ Generativity vs
sharpness, declines with age independent stagnation
strength, members of ✓ Midlife transition
reaction time, the society ✓ Ego integrity vs
and ✓ Many strive to despair
cardiovascular advance in ✓ Tend to grow
fitness; their careers psychologically
accumulation of in their 20s healthier
body fat; ✓ More
sexually, most optimistic
become readily over the past
aroused) generation
✓ Middle adult
(decline in
strength,
coordination,
and stamina;
menopause)
✓ Late adulthood
(increase in
brittleness of the
bones and
heightens risk of
breaks due to
falls; skin
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becomes less
elastic and
subject to
wrinkles; see
and hear less
accurately;
immune system
functions less
effective; impact
in sexual
functioning)
Stages of Psychosocial Development
Comprehension of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development requires an

understanding of several basic points.
1. Growth takes place according to the epigenetic principle. That is, one component part
arises out of another and has its own time of ascendancy, but it does not entirely
replace earlier components.
2. In every stage of life there is an interaction of opposites—that is, a conflict between a
syntonic (harmonious) element and a dystonic (disruptive) element. For example,
during infancy basic trust (a syntonic tendency) is opposed to basic mistrust (a
dystonic tendency). Both trust and mistrust, however, are necessary for proper
adaptation. An infant who learns only to trust becomes gullible and is ill prepared for
the realities encountered in later development, whereas an infant who learns only to
mistrust becomes overly suspicious and cynical. Similarly, during each of the other
seven stages, people must have both harmonious (syntonic) and disruptive (dystonic)
experiences.
3. At each stage, the conflict between the dystonic and syntonic elements produces an
ego quality or ego strength, which Erikson referred to as a basic strength. For instance,
from the antithesis between trust and mistrust emerges hope, an ego quality that
allows an infant to move into the next stage. Likewise, each of the other stages is
marked by a basic ego strength that emerges from the clash between the harmonious
and the disruptive elements of that stage.
4. Too little basic strength at any one stage results in a core pathology for that stage. For
example, a child who does not acquire sufficient hope during infancy will develop the
antithesis or opposite of hope, namely, withdrawal. Again, each stage has a potential
core pathology.
5. Although Erikson referred to his eight stages as psychosocial stages, he never lost sight
of the biological aspect of human development.
6. Events in earlier stages do not cause later personality development. Ego identity is
shaped by a multiplicity of conflicts and events—past, present, and anticipated.
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7. During each stage, but especially from adolescence forward, personality development
is characterized by an identity crisis, which Erikson called “a turning point, a crucial
period of increased vulnerability and heightened potential.” Thus, during each crisis,
a person is especially susceptible to major modifications in identity, either positive or
negative. Contrary to popular usage, an identity crisis is not a catastrophic event but
rather an opportunity for either adaptive or maladaptive adjustment.
Infancy
− A period encompassing approximately the first year of life

− Is a time of incorporation, with infants “taking in” not only through their mouth but
through their various sense organs as well
− Through their eyes, for example, infants take in visual stimuli. As they take in food and
sensory information, infants learn to either trust or mistrust the outside world, a
situation that gives them realistic hope.
Basic Trust vs Basic Mistrust
Basic Trust
− Infants’ most significant interpersonal relations are with their primary caregiver,
ordinarily their mother
− If they realize that their mother will provide food regularly, then they begin to learn
basic trust
− If they consistently hear the pleasant, rhythmic voice of their mother, then they
develop more basic trust
− If they can rely on an exciting visual environment, then they solidify basic trust even
more.
− If their pattern of accepting things corresponds with culture’s way of giving things,
then infants learn basic trust
Basic Mistrust
− They find no correspondence between their oral-sensory needs and their environment
** Too much trust makes them gullible and vulnerable to the vagaries of the world, whereas
too little trust leads to frustration, anger, hostility, cynicism, or depression
Early Childhood
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− Young children receive pleasure not only from mastering the sphincter muscle but also
from mastering other body functions such as urinating, walking, throwing, holding,
and so on
− Children develop a sense of control over their interpersonal environment, as well as a
measure of self-control
− A time of experiencing doubt and shame as children learn that many of their attempts
at autonomy are unsuccessful
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
Autonomy
− Children are just starting to gain a little independence and are starting to perform
basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer
− By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help
children develop a sense of independence
Shame and Doubt
− If parents do not maintain a reassuring, confident attitude and do not reinforce the
child’s efforts to master basic motor and cognitive skills, children may begin to feel
shame
− Children may learn to doubt their abilities to manage the world on their own terms.
− Children who experience too much doubt at this stage will lack confidence in their
own powers throughout life
Play Age
− A period of roughly ages 3 to 5 years

− Development of locomotion, language skills, curiosity, imagination, and the ability to
set goals
Initiative vs Guilt
Initiative
− As children begin to move around more easily and vigorously and as their genital
interest awakens, they adopt an intrusive head-on mode of approaching the world
− Children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social
interaction
Guilt
35
− Children who fail to acquire the skills of being capable and able to lead others are left
with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative
School Age
− Covers development from about age 6 to approximately age 12 or 13

− The social world of children is expanding beyond family to include peers, teachers, and
other adult models
− Their wish to know becomes strong and is tied to their basic striving for competence
− In normal development, children strive industriously to read and write, to hunt and
fish, or to learn the skills required by their culture
Industry vs Inferiority
Industry
− A willingness to remain busy with something and to finish a job

− School-age children learn to work and play at activities directed toward acquiring job
skills and toward learning the rules of cooperation
Inferiority
− Earlier inadequacies contribute to children’s feelings of inferiority

− If children acquire too much guilt and too little purpose during the play age, they will
likely feel inferior and incompetent during the school age
Adolescence
− The period from puberty to young adulthood, is one of the most crucial developmental
stages because, by the end of this period, a person must gain a firm sense of ego
identity
− They are permitted to experiment in a variety of ways and to try out new roles and
belief while seeking to establish a sense of ego identity
− An adaptive phase of personality development, a period of trial and error
Identity vs Identity Confusion
Identity
− Strengthens into a crisis as young people learn to cope with the psychosocial conflict
of identity versus identity confusion
36
− Emerges from two sources: (1) adolescents’ affirmation or repudiation of childhood
identifications, and (2) their historical and social contexts, which encourage
conformity to certain standards
− Defined both positively and negatively, as adolescents are deciding what they want to
become and what they believe while also discovering what they do not wish to be and
what they do not believe
Identity Confusion
− A dilemma that may intensify if they repudiated the values of parents or reject those
of the peer group
− A syndrome of problems that includes a divided self – image, an inability to establish
intimacy, a sense of time urgency, a lack of concentration on required tasks, and a
rejection of family or community standards
Young Adulthood
− People must acquire the ability to fuse that identity with the identity of another
person while maintaining their sense of individuality
Intimacy vs Isolation
Intimacy
− The ability to fuse one’s identity with that of another person without fear of losing it
− People who are unsure of their identity may either shy away from psychosocial
intimacy or desperately seek intimacy through meaningless sexual encounters
− Mature intimacy means an ability and willingness to share a mutual trust and it
involves sacrifice, compromise, and commitment within a relationship of two equals
Isolation
− The incapacity to take chances with one’s identity by sharing true intimacy
− Some people become financially or socially successful, yet retain a sense of isolation
because they are unable to accept the adult responsibilities of productive work,
procreation, and mature love
Adulthood
− The time when people begin to take their place in society and assume responsibility
for whatever society produces
37
− The longest stage of development, spanning the years from about age 31 to 60
Generativity vs Stagnation
Generativity
− The generation of new beings as well as new products and new ideas
− Is concerned with establishing and guiding the next generation, includes the
procreation of children, the production of work, and the creation of new things and
ideas that contribute to the building of a better world
Stagnation
− Failure to find a way to contribute

− Individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with
society as a whole
Old Age
− Can be a time of joy, playfulness, and wonder; but it is also a time of senility,
depression, and despair
− Men become more nurturant and more acceptant of the pleasures of nonsexual
relationships, including those with their grandchildren and great-grandchildren
− Women become more interested and involved in politics, finance, and world affairs
Integrity vs Despair
Integrity
− People are able to look back at their life with a sense of contentment and face the end
of life with a sense of wisdom and no regrets
− Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general
feeling of satisfaction
− These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death
Despair
− Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted
and will experience many regrets
− The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
38
Summary of Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
Parenting Styles
Many psychologists have been concerned about the relationships between parenting styles
and the personality development of the child. Baumrind has focused largely on four aspects
of parental behaviors namely: (1) strictness; (2) demands for the child to achieve intellectual,
emotional, and social maturity; (3) communication ability; and (4) warmth and involvement.
She labeled the three parenting styles the authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive styles.
Other researchers also speak of the uninvolved style. These four styles are defined in the
following ways:
1. Authoritative Parents
The parents of the most competent children rate high in all four areas of behavior.
They are strict (restrictive) and demand mature behavior. But they temper their
strictness with desire to reason with their children and with love and support. They
expect much, but they explain why and offer help. Baumrind labeled these parents
39
authoritative parents to suggest that they know what they want but are also loving
and respectful to their children.
2. Authoritarian Parents
Authoritarian parents view obedience as a virtue for its own sake. They have strict
guidelines about what is right and wrong, and they demand that their children stick to
them. Both authoritative and authoritarian parents have strict standards, but
authoritative parents explain their demands and are supportive, whereas
authoritarian parents rely on force and communicate poorly with their children.
Authoritarian parents do not respect their children's points of view, and they may be
cold and rejecting. When children ask them why they should do this or that,
authoritarian parents often answer, "Because I say so!"
3. Permissive Parents
Permissive parents are generally easygoing with their children. As a result, the children
do pretty much what the children want. Permissive parents are warm and supportive,
but poor at communicating.
4. Uninvolved Parents
Uninvolved parents tend to leave their children on their own. They make few demands
and show little warmth or encouragement.
Directions: Answer the following questions briefly. Afterwards, interact and discuss with your
groupmates for 30 to 45 minutes. Share your realizations during our synchronous class.
1. Have you ever experienced identity struggles while growing up?

2. How would you describe your self – identity? What is your sense of “I”?
3. Which parenting style did your parents use to raise you? How has it impacted your
developmental patterns, behavioral outcomes, and your relationship with their
parents?
Evaluate – Term Major Output
Directions: Compile photos of you from Stage 1 up until your current stage (base on Erikson’s
Psychosocial Stages of Development). Describe in a short detail what happened during that
certain stage.
40
LESSON 3: EMOTION AND PERCEPTION
Introduction
The perceptual process begins with receiving stimuli from the environment and ends with our
interpretation of those stimuli. This process is typically unconscious and happens hundreds of
thousands of times a day. Our perceptions are based on how we interpret all these different
sensations, which are sensory impressions we get from the stimuli in the world around us.
Perception enables us to navigate the world and to make decisions about everything, from
which T-shirt to wear or how fast to run away from a bear.
Emotions (which will also be discussed in this lesson) are often used interchangeably with
mood, but psychologists use these words to refer two different things. Typically, the word
emotion indicates a subjective, affective state that is relatively intense and that occurs in
response to something we experience. We can be at the heights of joy or in the depths of
despair. We might feel angry when we are betrayed, fear when we are threatened, and
surprised when something unexpected happens.
Lesson Objectives
1. Define and differentiate between sensation and perception

2. Describe how visual perception is organized
3. Identify the theoretical explanations of emotions
Directions: Click on the link and watch these informative videos to give you a glimpse of
sensation and perception
Sensation and Perception: Crash Course Psychology # 5
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=unWnZvXJH2o
Perceiving is Believing: Crash Course Psychology # 7
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n46umYA_4dM
41
Directions: Write about a time when you felt these emotions in the space provided.
EMOTION WHAT WAS HAPPENING WHEN YOU FELT THIS EMOTION?

Afraid
Angry
Ashamed
Confident
Confused
Sad
Embarrassed
Energetic
Excited
Glad
Jealous
Lonely
Proud
Relaxed
Stressed
What are the top three (3) feelings that you do not like to have?
1. _______________________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________________
3. _______________________________________________________________
Explain
Sensation and Perception
Sensation
Sensation is the stimulation of sensory receptors and the transmission of sensory information
to the central nervous system (the spinal cord or brain). Sensory receptors are located in
sensory organs such as the eyes and ears, the skin, and elsewhere in the body. Stimulation of
the senses is an automatic process. It results from sources of energy, like light and sound, or
from the presence of chemicals, as in smell and taste.
42
Perception
Perception is not automatic. Perception is an active process in which sensations are organized
and interpreted to form an inner representation of the world. Perception may begin with
sensation, but it also reflects our experiences and expectations as it makes sense of sensory
stimuli. A person standing fifteen feet away and a twelve-inch-tall doll right next to you may
cast similar – sized images on the back of your eye, but whether you interpret the size to be
a foot – long doll or a full-grown person fifteen feet away is a matter of perception that
depends on your experience with dolls, people, and distance.
Visual Perception
Visual perception is the process by which we organize or make sense of the sensory
impressions caused by the light that strikes our eyes. Visual perception involves our
knowledge, expectations, and motivations. Whereas sensation may be thought of as a
mechanical process (e.g., light stimulating the rods and cones of our retina), perception is an
active process through which we interpret the world around us.
Perceptual Organization
Early in the 20th century, Gestalt psychologists noted certain consistencies in the way we
integrate bits and pieces of sensory stimulation into meaningful wholes. They attempted to
identify the rules that govern these processes. As a group, these rules are referred to as the
laws of perceptual organization.
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Figure – Ground Perception
If you look out your window, you may see people, buildings, cars, and streets, or perhaps
grass, trees, birds, and clouds. These objects tend to be perceived as figures against
backgrounds. When figure – ground relationships are ambiguous, or capable of being
interpreted in various ways, our perceptions tend to be unstable and shift back and forth.
Other Gestalt Rules for Organization
Gestalt psychologists have noted that our perceptions are also guided by rules or laws of
proximity, similarity, continuity, and common fate.
If you said three sets of lines, you were influenced by the proximity, or nearness, of some of
the lines. There is no other reason for perceiving them in pairs or subgroups: All lines are
parallel and equal in length. According to the law of similarity, we perceive similar objects as
belonging together. For this reason, you may have been more likely to describe part B in terms
of columns than in terms of rows or a grid. If you saw part C as a single (broken) line, you were
probably organizing your perceptions according to the rule of continuity. That is, we perceive
a series of points or a broken line as having unity. According to the law of common fate,
elements seen moving together are perceived as belonging together. A group of people
running in the same direction appears unified in purpose.
Perception of Motion
The visual perception of movement is based on change of position relative to other objects.
To early scientists, whose only tool for visual observation was the naked eye, it seemed logical
that the sun circled the earth. You have to be able to imagine the movement of the earth
around the sun as seen from a theoretical point in outer space; you cannot observe it directly.
44
Perception of Loudness and Pitch
The loudness and pitch of sounds appear to be related to the number of receptor neurons on
the organ of Corti that fire and how often they fire.
Frequency Theory
Frequency theory notes that for us to perceive lower pitches, we need to match the frequency
of the sound waves with our neural impulses.
Kinesthesis and the Vestibular Sense
Humans and many other animals have senses that alert them to their movements and body
position without relying on vision, including kinesthesis and the vestibular sense. Kinesthesis
is the sense that informs you about the position and motion of parts of the body. Vestibular
sense on the other hand tell you whether you are falling and provide cues to whether your
body is changing speed, such as when you are in an accelerating airplane or automobile.
Emotion
Emotions color our lives. We are green with envy, red with anger, blue with sorrow. Positive
emotions such as love and desire can fill our days with pleasure. Negative emotions such as
fear, depression, and anger can fill us with dread and make each day a chore. It can also be a
response to a situation, in the way that fear is a response to a threat. An emotion can motivate
behavior, as anger can motivate us to act aggressively.
Emotions are defined as feeling states with physiological, cognitive, and behavioral
components. Strong emotions arouse the autonomic nervous system. The greater the
arousal, the more intense the emotion.
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The Expression of Emotions
Happiness and sadness are found in all cultures, but, how can we tell when other people are
happy or sad? It turns out that the expression of many emotions may be universal. For
instance, smiling is apparently a universal sign of friendliness and approval.
Positive Psychology
Many people might think that psychologists are interested only in negative emotions such as
anxiety, depression, and anger. Not at all. An area of psychology called positive psychology
deals with positive emotions such as happiness and love, optimism and hope, and joy and
sensual pleasures.
Theories of Emotion
46
Directions: They say “seeing is believing,” but can you really trust what you see? Do this fun
activity with your partner! Try to decipher the images below.
1. Stare at the center of the fuzzy image above without blinking. After a few seconds,
what do you see?
2. Is this a rabbit or a duck?
47
3. Have you noticed anything unusual in this picture?
4. Find something that’s hidden right in plain sight
48
5. What did you see first?
Evaluate - Quiz
Directions: Answer the following questions extensively.
1. Tell me your thoughts about precognition, psychokinesis, telepathy, and clairvoyance.

2. In your own understanding, what are emotions and why are they so important to us?
49
LESSON 4: CONSCIOUSNESS AND ITS ALTERED STATES
Introduction
Our lives involve regular, dramatic changes in the degree to which we are aware of our
surroundings and our internal states. While awake, we feel alert and aware of the many
important things going on around us. Our experiences change dramatically while we are in
deep sleep and once again when we are dreaming. This lesson will discuss states of
consciousness with a particular emphasis on sleep. The different stages of sleep will be
identified, and sleep disorders will be described. The chapter will close with discussions of
altered states of consciousness produced by psychoactive drugs, hypnosis, and meditation.
Lesson Objectives
1. Define consciousness
2. Explain the nature of sleep and various sleep disorders
3. Explain various uses of hypnosis, forms of meditation, and biofeedback techniques in
altering consciousness
4. Explain the concepts of substance abuse; identify categories of drugs and how they
alter consciousness
with our lesson.
1. We act out our forbidden fantasies in our dreams.

2. Insomnia can be caused by trying too hard to fall asleep.
3. It is dangerous to awaken a sleepwalker.
4. You can be hypnotized against your will.
5. You can teach a rat to raise or lower its heart rate.
6. Many health professionals calm down hyperactive children by giving them a stimulant.
7. Coca-Cola once "added life" to its signature drink through the use of a powerful-but
now illegal-stimulant.
8. The number of people who die from smoking-related causes is greater than the
number lost to motor-vehicle accidents, abuse of alcohol and all other drugs, suicide,
homicide, and AIDS combined.
50
Directions: Reflect on the question below and share your insights during our synchronous
class.
“When you talk to yourself, who talks, and who listens?”
Explain
What Is Consciousness?
Consciousness as Awareness
One meaning of consciousness is sensory awareness of the environment. The sense of vision
enables us to see, or be conscious of, the sun gleaming on the snow. The sense of hearing
allows us to hear, or be conscious of, a concert. Another aspect of consciousness is selective
attention. Selective attention means focusing one's consciousness on a particular stimulus.
To keep your car on the road, you must pay more attention to driving conditions than to your
hunger pangs or a cell-phone call. Consciousness can also be like that of direct inner
awareness. Close your eyes and imagine spilling a can of bright-red paint across a black
tabletop. Watch it spread across the black, shiny surface and then spill onto the floor.
Although this image may be vivid, you did not "see" it literally. Neither your eyes nor any
other sensory organs were involved. You were conscious of the image through direct inner
awareness.
Consciousness as Personal Unity
As we develop, we differentiate ourselves from that which is not us. We develop a sense of
being persons, individuals. There is a totality to our impressions, thoughts, and feelings that
makes up our consciousness, our continuing sense of self in the world.
Consciousness as the Waking State
The word conscious also refers to the waking state as opposed, for example, to sleep. From
this perspective, sleep, meditation, the hypnotic "trance," and the distorted perceptions that
can accompany use of consciousness – altering drugs are considered altered states of
consciousness.
Sleep and Dreams
Biological and Circadian Rhythms
A circadian rhythm is a cycle that is connected with the twenty-four-hour period of the earth's
rotation. A cycle of wakefulness and sleep is normally twenty-four hours long.
51
The Stages of Sleep
52
Dreams
Dreams are imagery in the absence of external stimulation and can seem real. Dreams are
most likely to be vivid during REM sleep. Images are vaguer and more fleeting during NREM
sleep. If you sleep for eight hours and undergo five sleep cycles, you may have five dreams.
Dreams may compress time the way a movie does, by skipping hours or days to a future time,
but the actual action tends to take place in "real time." You can dream in black and white or
in full color.
Dreams as "the Residue of the Day"
You may recall dreams involving fantastic adventures, but most dreams involve memories of
the day gone by. If we are preoccupied with illness or death, sex or aggression, or moral
dilemmas, we are likely to dream about them. The characters in our dreams are more likely
to be friends and neighbors than spies, monsters, and princes.
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia
Many people have insomnia because they try too hard to fall asleep at night.
Narcolepsy
A person with narcolepsy falls asleep suddenly. The sleep attack may last fifteen minutes or
so, after which the person feels refreshed. Narcolepsy is thought to be a disorder of REM sleep
functioning. Stimulants and antidepressant drugs have helped many people with the problem.
Apnea
Apnea is a dangerous sleep disorder in which the air passages are obstructed. People with
apnea stop breathing periodically, up to several hundred times per night.
Deep-Sleep Disorders: Sleep Terrors, Bed-Wetting, and Sleepwalking
Sleep terrors are similar to, but more severe than, nightmares, which occur during REM sleep.
Sleep terrors usually occur during the first two sleep cycles of the night, whereas nightmares
are more likely to occur toward morning. Bed-wetting probably reflects immaturity of the
nervous system. Sometimes all that is needed is reassurance that no one is to blame for bed
– wetting and that most children "outgrow" it. Sleepwalkers may roam about nightly while
53
their parents fret about possible accidents. Sleepwalkers typically do not remember their
excursions, although they may respond to questions while they are up and about. Mild
tranquilizers and maturity typically put an end to it.
Altering Consciousness through Hypnosis, Meditation, and Biofeedback
Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness in which people are suggestible and behave as
though they are in a trance. Some psychologists use hypnosis to help clients reduce anxiety,
overcome fears, or lessen the perception of chronic pain. Meditation involves thinking deeply
about the universe or about one's place in the world, often within a spiritual context. The
kinds of meditation that helping professionals speak of tend to refer to rituals, exercises, even
passive observation activities that alter the normal relationship between the person and the
environment. They are methods of suspending problem solving, planning, worries, and
awareness of the events of the day. Biofeedback is a system that provides, or "feeds back,"
information about a bodily function. People have learned to change some bodily functions
voluntarily, including heart rate that were once considered beyond conscious control.
Altering Consciousness through Drugs
54
Directions: Gather as a group and make an informative TikTok video. Be creative! You will be
presenting this during our synchronous class.
Choose only one (1) topic:
• Consciousness
• Sleep
• Dreams
• Drugs and their Effects
Evaluate – Quiz
Directions: Answer the quiz on Google Classroom (via Google Forms).
55
LESSON 5: THINKING, LEARNING AND MEMORY
Introduction
Psychologists have been studying the nature of learning for more than a century. In the
process they have taken a variety of theoretical perspectives. Diverse perspectives of learning
complement rather than contradict one another, and together they can give us a rich,
multifaceted picture of human learning. This lesson will help you understand the process of
how memory works or fails to work. In some articles, we somehow have encountered them
describing memory as a perfect recording system. However, our memories are complex
constructions that are prone to biases and mistakes. Different stages of the memory process
and the explanation of how encoding, storage, and retrieval act as interwoven processes that
influence our memories are discussed in this lesson.
Lesson Objectives
1. Describe the principles and methods of classical conditioning and operant

conditioning
2. Discuss cognitive factors in learning
3. Define memory and differentiate between types of memories
4. Explain the biological aspects of memory
Directions: Let’s play some games! After the activity, screenshot the page where your scores
are indicated.
Have I Seen It or Not?
https://www.mentalup.co/samples/game-v2/game2?referrer=blog-brain-games-for-
adults&page=desktop
Spot the Difference
https://www.mentalup.co/samples/game-v2/game11?referrer=blog-brain-games-for-
adults&page=desktop
56
Directions: Click on the link and watch this informative video to give you a glimpse of learning
and memory
Information Storage and the Brain: Learning and Memory
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PQDiUKwXLVI
Explain
The 4 Factors That Form The Definition of Learning
• Learning is inferred from a change in behavior/performance

• Learning results in an inferred change in memory
• Learning is the result of experience
• Learning is relatively permanent
What is Behavior Potential?
Once something is learned, an organism can exhibit a behavior that indicates learning as
occurred. Thus, once a behavior has been learned, it can be exhibited by performance of a
corresponding behavior.
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning can be defined as a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the
capacity to evoke a reflexive response that was originally evoked by a different stimulus.
1. Ivan Pavlov was studying salivation in dogs - he was measuring the amount of
salivation produced by the salivary glands of dogs by presenting them meat powder
through a food dispenser. The dispenser would deliver the meat powder to which the
animals salivated. However, what Pavlov noticed was that the food dispenser made a
sound when delivering the powder, and that the dogs salivated before the powder
was delivered. He realized that the dogs associated the sound (which occurred
57
seconds before the powder actually arrived) with the delivery of the food. Thus, the
dogs had "learned" that when the sound occurred, the meat powder was going to
arrive.
This is conditioning (Stimulus-Response; S-R Bonds). The stimulus (sound of food

dispenser) produced a response (salivation). It is important to note that at this point,
we are talking about reflexive responses (salivation is automatic).
2. Terminologies
a. Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response
without any prior conditioning (no learning needed for the response to occur).
b. Unconditioned Response (UR) - an unlearned reaction/response to an
unconditioned stimulus that occurs without prior conditioning.
c. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - a previously neutral stimulus that has, through
conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.
d. Conditioned Response (CR) - a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that
occurs because of prior conditioning.
3. Basic Principles:
a. Acquisition - formation of a new CR tendency. This means that when an organism
learns something new, it has been "acquired".
b. Extinction - this is a gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR
tendency. Extinction occurs from multiple presentations of CS without the US.
c. Spontaneous Recovery - sometimes there will be a reappearance of a response
that had been extinguished. The recovery can occur after a period of non-exposure
to the CS. It is called spontaneous because the response seems to reappear out of
nowhere.
d. Stimulus Generalization - a response to a specific stimulus becomes associated to
other stimuli (similar stimuli) and now occurs to those other similar stimuli.
e. Stimulus Discrimination - learning to respond to one stimulus and not another.
Thus, an organisms becomes conditioned to respond to a specific stimulus and not
to other stimuli.
f. Higher Order Conditioning - a CS can be used to produce a response from another
neutral stimulus (can evoke CS).
Operant Conditioning
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Operant conditioning can be defined as a type of learning in which voluntary (controllable;
non-reflexive) behavior is strengthened if it is reinforced and weakened if it is punished (or
not reinforced). Operant Conditioning is different from Classical Conditioning in that the
behaviors studied in Classical Conditioning are reflexive (for example, salivating). However,
the behaviors studied and governed by the principles of Operant Conditioning are non-
reflexive (for example, gambling). So, compared to Classical Conditioning, Operant
Conditioning attempts to predict non-reflexive, more complex behaviors, and the conditions
in which they will occur. In addition, Operant Conditioning deals with behaviors that are
performed so that the organism can obtain reinforcement.
Principles of Reinforcement
Skinner identified two types of reinforcing events - those in which a reward is given; and those
in which something bad is removed. In either case, the point of reinforcement is to increase
the frequency or probability of a response occurring again.
Positive Reinforcement - give an organism a pleasant stimulus when the operant response is
made. For example, a rat presses the lever (operant response) and it receives a treat (positive
reinforcement)
Negative Reinforcement - take away an unpleasant stimulus when the operant response is
made.
Two Types of Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcer
The stimulus that naturally strengthens any response that precedes it (e.g., food, water, sex)
without the need for any learning on the part of the organism. These reinforcers are naturally
reinforcing.
Secondary/Conditioned Reinforcer
A previously neutral stimulus that acquires the ability to strengthen responses because the
stimulus has been paired with a primary reinforcer. For example, an organism may become
conditioned to the sound of food dispenser, which occurs after the operant response is made.
Thus, the sound of the food dispenser becomes reinforcing. Notice the similarity to Classical
Conditioning, with the exception that the behavior is voluntary and occurs before the
presentation of a reinforcer.
Schedules of Reinforcement
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a. Fixed Ratio (FR) - reinforcement given after every N th responses, where N is the size of the
ratio (i.e., a certain number of responses have to occur before getting reinforcement).
b. Variable Ratio (VR) - the variable ration schedule is the same as the FR except that the ratio
varies, and is not stable like the FR schedule. Reinforcement is given after every N th response,
but N is an average.
c. Fixed Interval (FI) - a designated amount of time must pass, and then a certain response
must be made in order to get reinforcement.
d. Variable Interval (VI) - same as FI but now the time interval varies.
Punishment
Whereas reinforcement increases the probability of a response occurring again, the premise
of punishment is to decrease the frequency or probability of a response occurring again.
Skinner did not believe that punishment was as powerful a form of control as reinforcement,
even though it is the so commonly used. Thus, it is not truly the opposite of reinforcement
like he originally thought, and the effects are normally short-lived.
Two Types of Punishment:
Positive
Positive punishment is a presentation of an aversive stimulus to decrease the probability of

an operant response occurring again. For example, a child reaches for a cookie before dinner,
and you slap his hand.
Negative
Negative punishment is the removal of a pleasant stimulus to decrease the probability of an

operant response occurring again. For example, each time a child says a curse word, you
remove one dollar from their piggy bank.
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Memory
Memory is the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information. It is built on
three basic process- encoding, storage, and retrieval.
• Encoding – initial recording of information

• Storage – Information saved for future use
• Retrieval – recovery of stored information
Sensory Memory
Is the initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only as instant
Short-term Memory
Memory that holds information for fifteen to twenty-five seconds.
• Chunk - a meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be storied as a unit in short-term

memory. Chunk can be individual letters or numbers, permitting us to hold a seven-
digit phone number in short term memory.
• Rehersal - the repetition of information that has entered short-term memory.
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• Working Memory - a set of temporary memory stores that actively manipulate and
rehearse information
- Three Distinct storage and Rehearsal Systems
-Visual Store
-Verbal Store
-Episodic Buffer
Long-term Memory
Memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult
to retrieve.
• Declarative Memory (factual information) - memory for factual information: names,

faces, dates and the like.
• Procedural Memory - memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a
baseball, sometimes referred to as non-declarative memory.
• Semantic Memory (general memory) - memory for general knowledge and facts
about the world as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other
facts.
• Episodic Memory (personal knowledge) - memory for events that occur in a particular
time, place, or context.
Semantic Networks – are mental representations of clusters of interconnected information
Recalling Long - Term Memories
• Tip-of-the tongue phenomena - the inability to recall information that one realizes one
knows- as a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory.
• Recall - memory task in which specific information must be retrieved.
• Recognition - memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and
asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of
alternatives.
• Levels of Processing Theory - the theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to
which new material is mentally analyzed.
• Explicit Memory - intentional or conscious recollection of information
• Implicit Memory - memories of which people are not consciously aware, but which can
affect subsequent performance and behavior.
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• Priming - a phenomenon in which exposure to a word or concept called prime which
later makes it easier to recall related information, even when there is no conscious
memory of the word or concept.
• Flashbulb Memories - are memories centered on a specific, important, or surprising
event that are so vivid it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event.
• Constructive Processes - processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning
we give to events.
• Schemas - organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new
information is interpreted, stored, and recalled
• Autobiographical Memories - are our recollections of circumstances and episodes
from our own lives.
Forgetting: When Memory Fails
• Decay - the loss of information in memory through its nonuse.

• Memory trace - physical change in the brain that occurs when new material is learned.
• Interference – the phenomenon by which information in memory disrupts the recall
of other information.
• Cue-dependent forgetting - forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient
retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory.
• Proactive interference - interference which information learned earlier disrupts the
recall of newer material.
• Retroactive interference - interference in which there is difficulty in the recall of
information learned earlier because of the later exposure to different material
• Alzheimer’s disease - illness characterized in part by server memory problems.
• Amnesia- memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties.
o Retrograde amnesia - amnesia in which memory is list for occurrences prior to
a certain event.
o Anterograde amnesia - amnesia in which memory is lost for events that follow
an injury.
• Korsakoff’s syndrome - disease that afflicts long-term alcoholics, leaving some
abilities intact, but including hallucinations and a tendency to repeat the same story.
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Directions: Create atleast three (3) of your own mnemonic devices which will be useful in
Psychology.
Evaluate - Quiz
Directions: Answer the following questions extensively.
1. A particular song is playing when you first fell in love with a special person. Now, every
time you hear the song, you get a warm feeling. Can you explain this response in terms
of classical conditioning? Can you label the NS, US, UR, CS, and CR?
2. Give an example from daily life of each of the following: Positive reinforcement,
negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment (tabular
form).
3. Describe a situation in which you need to use working memory to perform a task or
solve a problem. How do your working memory skills help you?
64
LESSON 6: PERSONALITY
Introduction
Ever since the beginning of recorded history, the most significant riddle or question to be
answered is the “What sort of creatures are we?” A great many avenues have been explored,
with an enormous variety of concepts employed yet a satisfactory answer still is not there.
One important reason for the difficulty in getting a clear answer is that human beings come
in many shapes and sizes and behave in exceedingly complex ways. There are so many
differences to be accounted for biological, physical, genetics, social and psychological. The
vast differences among them have made it difficult, if not impossible, to identify what they
share in common as members of the human race. Personality psychology is concerned with
the differences among the people.
Lesson Objectives
1. Describe the psychoanalytical perspective and how it contributed to the study of

personality
2. Explain the trait perspective and the “Big Five” trait model
3. Identify the contributions of learning theory to understanding personality
4. Describe the humanistic perspective on personality
5. Describe the sociocultural perspective on personality
Directions: Click on the link and watch these informative videos to give you a glimpse of what
personality is
Who Are You, Really? The Puzzle of Personality | Brian Little

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qYvXk_bqlBk&t=284s
65
Directions: What are some characteristics of your personality? Identify and write down your
positive and negative traits on this chart.
Positive Traits Negative Traits
Explain
Personality
Personality refers to a combination of long-lasting and distinctive behaviors, thoughts,

motives, and emotions that typify how we react and adapt to other people and situations. It
also pertains to the overall impression that an individual makes on others, that is, a sum total
or constellation of characteristics that are typical of the individual and thus observable in
various social settings.
Perspectives of Psychology
1. The Psychodynamic Approach

2. The Dispositional Approach
3. The Behavioral Approach
4. The Humanistic Approach
The Psychodynamic Approach
The psychodynamics approach was founded by Sigmund Freud, who assumes that a human
personality is formed out of conflicts between basic needs and demands of the society. Most
of these conflicts are at the unconscious level and they affect our everyday behavior Freud
believed that personality has three components-id, ego and super ego. He also emphasized
on the role of ego defense mechanisms which keep these conflicts at the unconscious level.
He further talked about psycho sexual stages of development-such as oral, anal, phallic,
latency and genital stage.
There are other psychodynamic theorists who differed from Freud such as:
• Carl Jung
• Alfred Adler
• Karen Horney
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Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud’s psychodynamic theory of personality emphasizes the importance of early childhood

experiences, unconscious or repressed thoughts that we cannot voluntarily access, and the
conflicts between conscious and unconscious forces that influence our feelings, thoughts, and
behaviors.
Conscious vs Unconscious Forces
Conscious Thoughts
Conscious thoughts are wishes, desires, or thoughts that we are aware of, or can recall, at any
given moment.
Unconscious Thoughts
Unconscious forces represent wishes, desires, or thoughts that, because of their disturbing or
threatening content, we automatically repress and cannot voluntarily access.
Unconscious Motivation
Unconscious motivation is a Freudian concept that refers to the influence of repressed

thoughts, desires, or impulses on our conscious thoughts and behaviors.
The Provinces of the Mind
1. Id
The id, which is Freud’s first division of the mind to develop, contains two biological
drives (sex and aggression) that are the source of all psychic or mental energy; the id’s
goal is to pursue pleasure and satisfy the biological drives.
Pleasure Principle
The pleasure principle operates to satisfy drives and avoid pain, without concern for
moral restrictions or society’s regulations.
2. Ego
The ego, which is Freud’s second division of the mind, develops from the id during
infancy; the ego’s goal is to find safe and socially acceptable ways of satisfying the id’s
desires and to negotiate between the id’s wants and the superego’s prohibitions.
Reality Principle
The reality principle is a policy of satisfying a wish or desire only if there is a socially
acceptable outlet available.
3. Superego
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The superego, which is Freud’s third division of the mind, develops from the ego
during early childhood; the superego’s goal is to apply the moral values and standards
of one’s parents or caregivers and society in satisfying one’s wishes.
Defense Mechanisms
Defense mechanisms are Freudian processes that operate at unconscious levels and that use
self-deception or untrue explanations to protect the ego from being overwhelmed by anxiety.
Human Development Viewed Psychosexually
The psychoanalytic theory of development is based on two premises. The first, the genetic
approach, emphasizes that adult personality is shaped by various types of early childhood
experiences. The second is that a certain amount of sexual energy (libido) is present at birth
and thereafter progresses through a series of psychosexual stages that are rooted in the
instinctual processes of the organism. The formation of personality; oral, anal, phallic, and
genital. A period of latency, normally occurring between the ages of 6 or 7 and the onset of
puberty, was included by Freud in the overall scheme of development, but, technically
speaking, it is not a stage. The first three stages of development extend from birth to 5 years
of age and are called pregenital stage.
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The Dispositional Approach
This approach assumes that personality is made up of a set of stable internal characteristics
that guide behavior. These characteristics are described as personality types but more often
each person’s unique combination of traits, factors or needs. These inherited tendencies or
traits are the raw material which is molded into a unique personality by the environment.
Trait Theories
Trait theories can be measured by studying traits- any distinguishable, relatively enduring way
in which one individual varies from another
Two Different Types
1. Idiographic
Each individual possesses traits unique to them
Three types of traits
a. Cardinal
Cardinal traits are strong traits dominate personality and drive us
b. Central
5 – 10 traits that best describe individuals, and have less impact than cardinal traits
c. Secondary
Specific attitudes or habits
2. Nomothetic
Everybody possesses same traits to varying degrees
** Cattell criticized Allport for including too many traits. He used factor analysis to reduce
traits down to 16 personality factors (known as 16PF)
69
The Behavioral Approach
This approach assumes that personality is a unique pattern of learned behavior that people
display in various situations. This perception is advocated by Watson and Skinner. There are
certain behaviorists who include the role of learned patterns of thinking as well-such ad
cognitive-behavioral approach which emphasizes on behavior as the outcome of person-
situation interactions.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of

learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning,
an association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive)
for that behavior.
Components of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are
two kinds of reinforcers. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.
Positive Reinforcers
Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior.
In positive reinforcement situations, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition
70
of praise or a direct reward. If you do a good job at work and your manager gives you a bonus,
that bonus is a positive reinforcer.
Negative Reinforcers
Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the
display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of
something considered unpleasant. For example, if your child starts to scream in the middle of
a restaurant, but stops once you hand them a treat, your action led to the removal of the
unpleasant condition, negatively reinforcing your behavior (not your child's).
Punishment in Operant Conditioning
Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the
behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both of these cases, the behavior
decreases.
Positive Punishment
Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an

unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Spanking for
misbehavior is an example of punishment by application.
Negative Punishment
Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event
or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a child's video game following
misbehavior is an example of negative punishment.
A type of learning that had a major influence on the school of thought in psychology known
as behaviorism. Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a
learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a
naturally occurring stimulus.
71
Key Principles
1. Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and
gradually strengthened. During the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, a
neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
2. Extinction
Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear.
In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired
with an unconditioned stimulus.
3. Spontaneous Recovery
Sometimes a learned response can suddenly reemerge even after a period of
extinction. Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response
after a rest period or period of lessened response.
4. Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar
responses after the response has been conditioned.
5. Stimulus Discrimination
Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other
stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
72
The Humanistic Approach
It is based on the assumption that personality is determined by the unique ways in which each
individual views the world. These perceptions of the person form a personal vision of reality
and guides behavior of the person to reach its fullest human potential. This approach is
represented in the theories of Carl Rogers and Maslow.
Maslow’s Theory
Humanistic view puts the emphasis on the positive aspects of life, free choices and personal
growth experiences. Abnormality results from refusal to accept personal responsibility for
one’s own actions and thoughts. So human behavior is caused by the choices we make
voluntarily. The Humanistic assume that human nature is inherently good and they blame
abnormal / aggressive behavior caused by the society but not by the individual.
Basic Concepts of Humanistic Psychology
• The Individual as an Integrated Whole

• Irrelevance of Animal Research
• Man's Inner Nature
• Human Creative Potential
• Emphasis on Psychological Health
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow believed that much of human behavior can be explained by the individual's tendency
to seek personal goal states that make life rewarding and meaningful. In fact, motivational
processes are the heart of his personality theory.
73
Directions: Together with your pair, read and understand Freud’s defense mechanisms.
Afterwards, fill out the table below. Do not forget to create your own examples for each.
Mechanism Definition Example
Evaluate – Quiz
74
LESSON 7: HEALTH, STRESS, AND COPING
Introduction
The study of stress is very much the study of how the mind and body interact. In this lesson,
you will learn how your mind is involved in what happens to your body during stressful
situations. Also, you will discover what can make these circumstances elicit very negative
emotions, which can greatly increase levels of stress. However, just as we can use our mind
to overreact to stress, we can also use it to cope with stress.
Lesson Objectives
1. Define stress and identify various sources of stress

2. Identify the psychological moderators of stress
3. Describe the impact of stress on the body
4. Explain the relationships between psychology and health
with our lesson.
1. Some stress is good for us.

2. Vacations can be stressful.
3. Searching for social approval or perfection is an excellent way of making yourself
miserable.
4. Type A people achieve more than Type B people, but they are less satisfied with
themselves.
5. Humor helps us cope with stress.
6. At any given moment, countless microscopic warriors within our bodies are carrying
out search and destroy missions against foreign agents.
7. If you have a family history of heart disease or cancer, there is little or nothing you can
do to prevent developing the illness yourself.
health, stress, and coping
75
How Stress Is Killing Us (And How You Can Stop It)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NyyPZJrDfkM
Explain
Health Psychology
Health psychology studies the relationships between psychological factors and the prevention
and treatment of physical health problems. Health psychologists investigate how:
• Psychological factors such as stress, behavior patterns, and attitudes can lead to or
aggravate illness
• People can cope with stress
• Stress and pathogens interact to influence the immune system
• People decide whether or not to seek health care
• Psychological interventions such as health education and behavior modification can
contribute to physical health
Stress
Psychologists define stress as the demand made on an organism to adapt, cope, or adjust.
Your levels of stress can influence your likelihood of contracting minor and major illnesses.
For example, individuals with low levels of stress were found to be less susceptible to the cold
virus when purposefully exposed to it. Even daily stressors, events that cause high
physiological arousal, can cause negative physiological responses.
Kinds of Stressors
1. Hassles
Hassles are those small, irritating, frustrating events that we face daily and that we
usually appraise or interpret as stressful experiences. Generally, women reported the
stressors as being more severe than did men. As the number of daily hassles increased,
so too did the chance of developing psychosomatic problems or being in a bad mood.
2. Major Life Events
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Major life events are potentially disturbing, troubling, or disruptive situations, both
positive and negative, that we appraise as having a significant impact on our lives.
3. Frustration
Frustration is the awful feeling that results when your attempts to reach some goal
are blocked. You may be blocked from reaching a goal because of personal limitations,
such as losing your temper, making dumb mistakes on an exam, or not having the skills
to pass a course. Or you may be blocked from reaching a goal because of social or
environmental limitations.
4. Burnout
Burnout refers to being physically overwhelmed and exhausted, finding the job
unrewarding and becoming cynical or detached, and developing a strong sense of
ineffectiveness and lack of accomplishment in this particular job. Burnout is
accompanied by intense feelings and negative emotions that trigger the fight or flight
response, keep the body in a continual state of heightened physiological arousal, and
cause psychosomatic symptoms in relation to sleep problems, stomach disorders,
headaches, muscle pain (especially lower back and neck), and frequent and prolonged
colds.
5. Violence
Most people experience at least one traumatic situation during their life. About 30%
to 50% of children experience at least one traumatic event before they reach 18. For
some people the experience is so stressful it results in posttraumatic stress disorder.
6. Conflict
Conflict is the feeling you experience when you must choose between two or more
incompatible possibilities or options. The reason the situations put you in conflict is
that, no matter which option you choose, you must give up something you really want
to get or you must do something you really want to avoid.
Approach – Approach
Approach-approach conflict involves choosing between two situations that both have
pleasurable consequences. For example, deciding between going to a party or seeing
a friend involves choosing between two pleasurable options.
Avoidance – Avoidance
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Avoidance-avoidance conflict involves choosing between two situations that both
have disagreeable consequences. For example, deciding between studying for a
psychology exam or writing a paper for a history class involves choosing between two
undesirable options.
Approach – Avoidance
Approach-avoidance conflict involves a single situation that has both pleasurable and
disagreeable aspects. For example, deciding about asking a new acquaintance to lunch
and being afraid of being rejected involves a single situation that has both desirable
and undesirable possibilities.
Anxiety
Anxiety is an unpleasant state characterized by feelings of uneasiness and apprehension as

well as increased physiological arousal, such as increased heart rate and blood pressure.
A conditioned emotional response results when an emotional response, such as fear or

anxiety, is classically conditioned to a previously neutral stimulus. A conditioned emotional
response not only is highly resistant to extinction but can also cause stressful feelings.
Observational Learning
Observational learning, which is a form of cognitive learning, results from watching and
modeling and does not require the observer to perform any observable behavior or receive a
reinforcer. Albert Bandura believes the majority of human learning, including feeling anxious
in specific situations, occurs through observational learning.
Unconscious Conflict
Sigmund Freud hypothesized that there are three divisions of the mind and there are the id,
ego, and superego. The three divisions may at times be in conflict over how a need should be
satisfied). This unconscious conflict may result in feeling anxiety. Anxiety, according to Freud,
arises when there is an unconscious conflict between the id’s and superego’s desires
regarding how to satisfy a need, with the ego caught in the middle. The ego’s solution to this
conflict is to create a feeling of anxiety. We may try to decrease our anxiety by using a number
of defense mechanisms.
Positive Stress
Eustress is a pleasant and desirable type of stress that is healthful and keeps us engaged in
situations. You’ve likely experienced eustress when purchasing a new car, applying to college,
getting a promotion at work, winning first place in a competition, watching a suspenseful
78
thriller, getting married, or having a child. Eustress arouses and motivates us to achieve and
overcome challenges. It is one type of stress we do not want to live without.
Hardiness
Hardiness is a combination of three personality traits namely control, commitment, and

challenge. These protect or buffer us from the potentially harmful effects of stressful
situations and reduce our chances of developing psychosomatic illnesses.
Locus of Control
Locus of control represents a continuum: At one end is the belief that you are basically in
control of life’s events and that what you do influences the situation; this belief is called an
internal locus of control. At the other end is the belief that chance and luck mostly determine
what happens and that you do not have much influence; this belief is called an external locus
of control.
External Locus of Control
“No matter how much I study, it never seems to help,” says the student with an external locus
of control. This student will likely appraise exams and papers as less of a challenge and more
of a threat, which in turn will generate negative emotions (fear, anxiety, anger) and increase
stress levels.
Internal Locus of Control
“If I study hard and apply myself, I can get good grades,” says the student with an internal
locus of control. This student will likely appraise exams and papers less as threats and more
as challenges, which in turn will generate positive emotions (excitement, enthusiasm) and
decrease stress levels. This means that students with internal locus of control have lower
levels of stress and, as a result, report fewer psychosomatic symptoms than those with
external locus of control.
Social Support
Social support refers to three factors: having a group or network of family or friends who
provide strong social attachments; being able to exchange helpful resources among family or
friends; and feeling, or making appraisals, that we have supportive relationships and
behaviors. People are social beings and social support also seems to act as a buffer against
the effects of stress.
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• Emotional concern (listening to people’s problems and expressing feelings of
sympathy, caring, understanding, and reassurance)
• Instrumental aid (material supports and services that facilitate adaptive behavior such
as providing food, medicines, and temporary living quarters)
• Information (guidance and advice that enhance people’s ability to cope)
• Appraisal (feedback from others about how one is doing)
• Socializing (conversation, recreation, going shopping with someone)
Stress Management
Managing stress is really important to health. When people can’t change the source of the
stress itself (e.g., financial strain), health interventions can help reduce and manage their
stress responses using tools, such as relaxation and meditation.
The Importance of Good Health Practices
Keeping good grades, maintaining a social life, and getting enough sleep can prove difficult
for college students. Stressed out students taking exams tend to smoke more, drink more
caffeine, and have less physical activity and bad sleeping habits, which can have deleterious
health effects. Negative health behaviors can also adversely impact learning and academic
performance. Psychologists study both health behaviors (i.e., behaviors that can improve or
harm one’s health) and health habits. Health behaviors become habits when performed
routinely and/or automatically. Research shows that when people engage in positive health
habits, they have fewer illnesses and live longer. Psychologists often focus on health
promotion, which can help individuals change risky health behaviors as well as spread
awareness of risk factors.
Directions: Fill out the table below. Identify five personal stressors and indicate the source of
stress, stress signals, and your stress management behavior (both healthy and unhealthy).
Stressor Source of Stress Stress Signals Stress Management

Behavior
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Evaluate - Quiz
Directions: As a group, design a psychological intervention on the stressor assigned to you.

Write a short reflection after this activity individually.
Group 1 COVID – 19 Pandemic

Group 2 Online Class
Group 3 Job Loss
Group 4 Insomnia
Group 5 Chronic Illness
Group 6 Death of a Loved One
Group 7 Increase in Financial Obligation
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LESSON 8: ABNORMAL AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Introduction
In Social Psychology we will discuss how we perceive people, how we explain the causes of
our behaviors, why we develop attitudes, and how we respond to persuasion. We’ll also
explore a variety of social influences and group behaviors, such as what makes hazing so
popular, how we respond to group pressures, what motivates us to help others, and why we
behave aggressively.
Lesson Objectives
1. Define psychological disorders, describe their prevalence and symptoms, and possible
origins
2. Explain why people obey authority figures and conform to social norms
3. Describe how and why people behave differently as group members than as
individuals
with our lesson.
1. A man shot the governor in front of millions of television witnesses and was found not
guilty by a court of law.
2. Anxiety is abnormal.
3. Feeling elated is not always a good thing.
4. People who threaten to commit suicide are just seeking attention.
5. People with schizophrenia may see and hear things that are not really there.
6. Some people can kill or hurt others without any feelings of guilt.
abnormal and social psychology
Psychological Disorders: Crash Course Psychology #28
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wuhJ-GkRRQc
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Social Influence: Crash Course Psychology #38
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UGxGDdQnC1Y&list=PLViF3fAf2KEE1oGKgChzV-
2wMeLlEUdMq&index=3
Explain
ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
Insanity
Insanity, according to its legal definition, means not knowing the difference between right
and wrong.
Mental Disorders
A mental disorder is generally defined as a prolonged or recurring problem that seriously

interferes with an individual’s ability to live a satisfying personal life and function adequately
in society. Deciding whether a person has a mental disorder can be difficult because so many
factors are involved in defining what is abnormal.
Neurodevelopmental Disorders
• Intellectual Disabilities
• Communication Disorders
• Autism Spectrum Disorder
• Attention – Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
• Specific Learning Disorder
• Motor Disorders
Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders
• Schizophrenia
Bipolar and Related Disorders
• Bipolar 1 Disorder
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• Bipolar II
• Cyclothymic Disorder
Depressive Disorders
• Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder

• Major Depressive Disorder
• Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia)
• Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder
Anxiety Disorders
• Separation Anxiety Disorder

• Selective Mutism
• Specific Phobia
• Social Anxiety Disorder
• Panic Disorder
• Agoraphobia
• Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Obsessive – Compulsive and Related Disorders
• Obsessive – Compulsive Disorder

• Body Dysmorphic Disorder
• Hoarding Disorder
• Trichotillomania
• Excoriation
Trauma and Stressor Related Disorders
• Reactive Attachment Disorder

• Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
• Acute Stress Disorder
• Adjustment Disorders
Dissociative Disorders
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• Dissociative Identity Disorder
• Dissociative Amnesia
• Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder
Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders
• Somatic Symptom Disorder

• Illness Anxiety Disorder
• Conversion Disorder
• Psychological Factors Affecting Other Medical Conditions
• Factitious Disorder
Feeding and Eating Disorders
• Pica
• Rumination Disorder
• Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder
• Anorexia Nervosa
• Bulimia Nervosa
• Binge Eating Disorder
Elimination Disorder
• Enuresis
• Encopresis
Sleep – Wake Disorders
• Insomnia Disorder
• Hypersomnolence Disorder
• Narcolepsy
• Breathing – Related Sleep Disorders
• Parasomnias
Sexual Dysfunctions
• Delayed Ejaculation
• Erectile Disorder
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• Female Orgasmic Disorder
• Female Sexual Interest/Arousal Disorder
• Genito – Pelvic Pain / Penetration Disorder
Gender Dysphoria
• Gender Dysphoria
Disruptive, Impulse – Control, and Conduct Disorders
• Oppositional Defiant Disorder

• Intermittent Explosive Disorder
• Conduct Disorder
• Antisocial Personality Disorder
• Pyromania
• Kleptomania
Substance Related and Addictive Disorders
• Alcohol Related Disorders

• Caffeine Related Disorders
• Cannabis Related Disorders
• Hallucinogen Related Disorders
• Inhalant Related Disorders
• Opioid Related Disorders
• Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Related Disorders
• Stimulant Related Disorders
• Tobacco Related Disorders
Neurocognitive Disorders
• Delirium
• Major Neurocognitive Disorders
• Mild Neurocognitive Disorders
Personality Disorders
• Paranoid Personality Disorder
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• Schizoid Personality Disorder
• Schizotypal Personality Disorder
• Antisocial Personality Disorder
• Borderline Personality Disorder
• Histrionic Personality Disorder
• Narcissistic Personality Disorder
• Avoidant Personality Disorder
• Dependent Personality Disorder
• Obsessive – Compulsive Personality Disorder
Paraphilic Disorders
• Voyeuristic Disorder
• Exhibitionistic Disorder
• Frotteuristic Disorder
• Sexual Masochism Disorder
• Sexual Sadism Disorder
• Pedophilic Disorder
• Fetishistic Disorder
• Transvestic Disorder
Other Mental Disorders
• Other Specified Mental Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition

• Unspecified Mental Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition
• Other Specified Mental Disorder
• Unspecified Mental Disorder
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
''People can be goaded by social influences into doing things that are not necessarily
consistent with their personalities.'
Social psychology is a broad field whose goals are to understand and explain how our
thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and behaviors are influenced by the presence of, or
interactions with, others. Social psychologists study how we form impressions and perceive
others, how we form attitudes and stereotypes, how we evaluate social interactions, and why
racism exists.
87
Stereotypes
Stereotypes are widely held beliefs that people have certain traits because they belong to a
particular group. Stereotypes are often inaccurate and frequently portray the members of
less powerful, less controlling groups more negatively than members of more powerful or
more controlling groups.
Development of Stereotypes
Prejudice
Prejudice refers to an unfair, biased, or intolerant attitude toward another group of people.
An example of prejudice is believing that overweight women are not as intelligent,
competent, or capable as women of normal weight.
Discrimination
Discrimination refers to specific unfair behaviors exhibited toward members of a group.
An employer’s bias against hiring overweight applicants is an example of discrimination.
Functions of Stereotypes
Social cognitive psychologists suggest that, just as we have developed physical tools, such as
hammers and saws, to help us build things more efficiently, we have also developed cognitive
tools, such as stereotypes, to help us think and make decisions more efficiently. For example,
instead of having to analyze in detail the person in the photo below, you immediately notice
the person’s unique characteristics, assign the person to a social group, such as teenage –
punker, and use the information stored in your “teenage punker” stereotype: disregards
standard social customs and fashions, is independent, dislikes authority, goes to rave parties,
experiments with drugs, and so on.
Thought – Saving Device
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Stereotypes help us conserve time and energy when making decisions in social situations. By
using stereotypes, we make quick (and sometimes inaccurate) decisions and thus save time
and energy by not having to analyze an overwhelming amount of personal and social
information.
Alertness and Survival.
Recent neurological research found that the sight of a stranger of another race leads to
heightened physiological arousal, which likely reflects unconscious biases and a natural
awareness of individuals of unfamiliar groups (such as race). Thus, one function of stereotypes
is to make us alert and cautious around members of an unfamiliar group.
Attributions
Attributions are things we point to as the causes of events, other people’s behaviors, and our
own behaviors. If you had to explain why there are no female umpires in major league
baseball, you would choose between internal and external attributions.
Internal vs External
Internal Attributions
Internal attributions are explanations of behavior based on the internal characteristics or

dispositions of the person performing the behavior. They are sometimes referred to as
dispositional attributions.
External Attributions
External attributions are explanations of behavior based on the external circumstances or

situations. They are sometimes called situational attributions.
Biases and Errors
The cognitive miser model says that, in making attributions, people feel they must conserve
time and effort by taking cognitive shortcuts.
Fundamental Attribution Error
The fundamental attribution error refers to our tendency, when we look for causes of a
person’s behavior, to focus on the person’s disposition or personality traits and overlook how
the situation influenced the person’s behavior.
Actor-Observer Effect
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The actor-observer effect refers to the tendency, when you are behaving (or acting), to
attribute your own behavior to situational factors. However, when you are observing others,
you attribute another’s behavior to his or her personality traits or disposition.
Self – Serving Bias
The self-serving bias refers to explaining our successes by attributing them to our dispositions
or personality traits and explaining our failures by attributing them to the situations.
Attitudes
Attitudes are behavioral and cognitive tendencies that are expressed by evaluating particular
people, places, or things with favor or disfavor. Attitudes are largely learned, and they affect
behavior. They can foster love or hate. They can give rise to helping behavior or to mass
destruction. They can lead to social conflict or to the resolution of conflicts. Attitudes can
change, but not easily. Most people do not change their religion or political affiliation without
serious reflection or coercion.
Attitude Change
Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive dissonance refers to a state of unpleasant psychological tension that motivates us

to reduce our cognitive inconsistencies by making our beliefs more consistent with our
behavior.
Two Main Ways to Reduce Cognitive Dissonance
1. Adding or Changing Beliefs

We can reduce cognitive dissonance by adding new beliefs or changing old beliefs and
making them consistent with our behavior.
2. Counterattitudinal Behavior
Another way we can reduce cognitive dissonance is by engaging in opposite or
counterattitudinal behavior. Counterattitudinal behavior involves taking a public
position that runs counter to your private attitude.
Self-Perception Theory
Self-perception theory says that we first observe or perceive our own behavior and then, as
a result, we change our attitudes. According to cognitive dissonance theory, the belief “if I
90
said it, it must be true” occurs because we are trying to reduce the inconsistency in our beliefs
and behaviors. In comparison, according to self-perception theory, concluding “if I said it, it
must be true” simply reflects another way of explaining our own behaviors.
Persuasion
Central Route
The central route for persuasion presents information with strong arguments, analyses, facts,
and logic.
Peripheral Route
The peripheral route for persuasion emphasizes emotional appeal, focuses on personal traits,
and generates positive feelings.
Social and Group Influences
Conformity
Conformity refers to any behavior you perform because of group pressure, even though that
pressure might not involve direct requests. Normally, most students (and most of us) would
never conform or agree to be publicly humiliated. Yet, we react to strong group pressures.
Hazing
Hazing may be part of a group’s initiation ritual during which individuals are subjected to a
variety of behaviors that range from humiliating and unpleasant to potentially dangerous
both physically and psychologically.
Watch This!
Asch’s Experiment
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TYIh4MkcfJA&t=3s
Compliance
Compliance is a kind of conformity in which we give in to social pressure in our public

responses but do not change our private beliefs. For example, you may conform to your
instructor’s suggestions on rewriting a paper although you do not agree with the suggestions.
In this case, you would be complying with someone in authority.
The Foot – in – the – Door Technique

91
The foot-in-the-door technique refers to the technique of starting with a little request to gain
eventual compliance with a later request. A common example of the foot-in-the-door
technique is telemarketers who first get you to answer a simple question such as “How are
you today?” so that you’ll stay on the phone and answer their other questions.
Obedience
Obedience refers to performing some behavior in response to an order given by someone in

a position of power or authority.
Watch This!
Milgram’s Experiment
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mOUEC5YXV8U
Behavior in Groups
Group Dynamics
Groups are collections of two or more people who interact, share some common idea, goal,
or purpose, and influence how their members think and behave.
Group Cohesion
Group cohesion is group togetherness, which is determined by how much group members
perceive that they share common attributes. One reason many groups have some form of
initiation rites and rituals is to have all members share a common experience and thus
increase group cohesion.
Group Norms
Group norms are the formal or informal rules about how group members should behave.
Behavior in Crowds
You may not notice, but being in a crowd can cause you to think and behave differently than
when you’re alone. A crowd, which is a large group of persons who are usually strangers, can
facilitate or inhibit certain behaviors. For example, we’ll discuss how being in a crowd can
92
increase or decrease personal performance, encourage individuals to engage in antisocial
behaviors, such as riots, or cause individuals to refuse to help to someone in need.
Facilitation and Inhibition
Social facilitation is an increase in performance in the presence of a crowd while social

inhibition is a decrease in performance in the presence of a crowd.
Deindividuation in Crowds
Deindividuation refers to the increased tendency for subjects to behave irrationally or

perform antisocial behaviors when there is less chance of being personally identified.
Researchers believe deindividuation occurs because being in a crowd gives individuals
anonymity and reduces guilt and self-awareness, so that people are less controlled by internal
standards and more willing to engage in deviant or antisocial roles.
The Bystander Effect
The bystander effect says that an individual may feel inhibited from taking some action
because of the presence of others. The informational influence theory says that we use the
reactions of others to judge the seriousness of the situation. If other bystanders are taking no
action, we conclude that no emergency exists and we do nothing to offer help or aid. The
diffusion of responsibility theory says that, in the presence of others, individuals feel less
personal responsibility and are less likely to take action in a situation where help is required.
Group Polarization
Group polarization is a phenomenon in which group discussion reinforces the majority’s point
of view and shifts that view to a more extreme position.
93
Groupthink
Groupthink refers to a group making bad decisions because the group is more concerned
about reaching agreement and sticking together than gathering the relevant information and
considering all the alternatives.
Directions: Discuss among your group the following questions. Be able to share your insights
during our synchronous class.
1. Why did people in the Milgram Studies obey the experimenters?

2. What do you think are the factors that influence conformity?
3. What stereotypes and prejudices do you hold? Are you able to get past them and
judge people as individuals? Do you think that your stereotypes influence your
behavior without your being aware of them?
Evaluate – Quiz
94
Post Test
Directions: Choose the best answer.
26. Psychology is defined as the scientific study of

e. Behavior and mental processes
f. Diagnosis and treatment of behavioral disorders
g. Conscious and unconscious mental processes
h. The mind
27. What distinguished Wilhelm Wundt’s contribution from other contributions to

psychology?
e. He wrote the first textbook of psychology
f. He defined psychology as the science of behavior
g. He established psychology as a laboratory science
h. He studied insight in lower animals
28. __________ psychologists make technical systems such as automobile dashboards

and computer keyboards more user friendly.
e. Experimental
f. Consumer
g. Human factors
h. Industrial
29. Jean, a divorced mother with two children, married Harry, a widower with a teenage
daughter. From the onset of her relationship with Harry, Jean had difficulty in relating
to his daughter. Once married, the family problems between stepmother and
stepdaughter became exacerbated. Who would be the most appropriate to consult?
e. A Developmental Psychologist
f. An Educational Psychologist
g. A Counseling Psychologist
h. An Organizational Psychologist
30. The issues of ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status are the concerns of the
_____________ perspective.
e. Sociocultural
f. Humanistic – Existential
g. Psychoanalytic
h. Social – Cognitive
95
31. The axons of the ____________ make up the optic nerve, which exits the eye at the
____________.
e. Bipolar cells; fovea
f. Ganglion cells; blind spot
g. Bipolar cells; blind spot
h. Horizontal cells, fovea
32. A neuron can fire up to a limit of about ___________ times per second.
e. 40
f. 400
g. 4,000
h. 40,000
33. Ellen loses weight and becomes somewhat agitated. Her doctor is most likely to
theorize that she is suffering from a deficiency of
e. Epinephrine
f. Dopamine
g. Cortisol
h. Thyroxin
34. Which neurotransmitter is associated with depression?

e. Serotonin
f. Dopamine
g. Glutamate
h. GABA
35. Which of the following are children most likely to “outgrow”?

e. Insomnia
f. Bed – wetting
g. Sleep apnea
h. Narcolepsy
36. Elyse is a college student who has developed a tolerance to heroin and experiences
withdrawal symptoms whenever she doesn’t have a “fix” at least every eight hours.
She feels that she has lost control and has to organize her life around her habit. She
would be classified as having
e. Substance abuse
f. Substance dependence
g. Substance use
h. Anxiety disorder
96
37. Roberto kept seeing signs on the highway advertising Pizza Corner. He started to
salivate at the possibility of having a pizza. The signs were
e. Unconditioned stimuli
f. Unconditioned responses
g. Conditioned stimuli
h. Conditioned responses
38. Which of the following best illustrates operant conditioning according to Skinner?
e. A dog salivates at the sound of a dinner bell
f. A cat comes running when it hears the sound of a can opener
g. A dolphin is given a fish every time it jumps through a hoop
h. The mating behavior of salmon
39. Johnny watches TV violence for an hour or two a day, but he is not violent outside the
home. Then one day, Billy attacks him on the way home from school, and Johnny
imitates the behavior he saw on TV to fight Billy off and teach Billy never to attack him
again. Although Johnny had not shown violent behavior until he was attacked, we can
assume that when he was watching TV, he was engaging in
e. Latent learning
f. Shaping
g. Discriminating training
h. Operant conditioning
40. Jamie’s mother was concerned that her 4 year old daughter overregularized plurals
and tenses. She took Jamie to Dr. Acton, a noted learning theorist. Who advised her
to
e. Wait for Jamie’s speech to correct itself
f. Take her to a speech therapist
g. Correct her grammar through imitation and repetition
h. Begin instruction in another language
41. Fear involves activation of the ____________ nervous system, but depression involves
activation of the ______________ nervous system.
e. Peripheral; somatic
f. Somatic; peripheral
g. Parasympathetic; sympathetic
h. Sympathetic; parasympathetic
42. Erikson labeled the life crisis of the middle years as

e. Trust vs mistrust
f. Generativity vs stagnation
97
g. Identity vs stagnation
h. Midlife transition vs despair
43. The five – factor model includes which five basic personality factors?
e. Depression, obsessiveness, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness
f. Narcissism, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness
g. Extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness
h. Extraversion, psychosis, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness
44. Moderators of stress include all of the following except

e. Pretending that stressors do not exist
f. Psychological hardiness
g. Sense of humor
h. Predictability and control
45. Candace has an internal locus of control. This means that she
e. Can only control her inner emotions
f. Can only control her outward appearance
g. Feels she is controlled by others
h. Feels she can control her own life
46. Boris has been under a great deal of stress. Which of the following is most likely true?
e. His immune system is weakened
f. His immune system is strengthened
g. His immune system is unaffected
h. None of the above
47. The news just reported that a hurricane is headed toward your home. You feel anxious
and can’t decide what to do first to prepare. This response is indicative of
e. Unusual behavior
f. Normal behavior
g. Abnormal behavior
h. Faulty behavior
48. Imagery in the absence of external stimulation is the definition of _____________,

which are often observed in people with schizophrenia.
e. Rapid flight of ideas
f. Delusions
g. Hallucinations
h. Stress disorder
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49. The self – serving bias is the tendency to
e. Repeat ourselves when we think we’re right
f. Take care of our own needs first, and worry about others later
g. Credit our successes to internal, dispositional factors, and our failures to
situational influences
h. Describe our successes in greater detail than our failures
50. One major reason that group tend to take greater risks than their members would
take as individual is
e. Diffusion of responsibility
f. The reciprocity norm
g. Group intelligence
h. All of these
99
References
Lally, M. & Valentine – French, S. (2018). Introduction to psychology. San Francisco: Creative
Commons
Plotnik, R. & Kouyoumdjian, H. (2011). Introduction to psychology. (9th ed). Wadsworth:

Cengage Learning
Rathus, S. (2014). Psychology (3rd ed.). Pasig City: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd (Philippine
Branch)
100

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A SELF LEARNING MODULE

Week 1 April 26 – 30, 2021 Pretest / Lesson 1

For your dyad

For your group

1. Use doc., docx., or pdf file types only

*group leaders are tasked to upload group outputs

How to Use the Module ……………………………………………………………………………………………..…… 3

Class Schedule ….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..… 4

Guidelines in Groupings ………………………………………………………………………………………………..… 4

Guidelines in Uploading to Google Classroom …………………………………………………………………. 5

Pre – Test ……………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………….. 7

Lesson 2: Human Development ………………………………………………………………………………………. 29

Lesson 3: Emotion and Perception ………………………………………………………………………………….. 42

Lesson 4: Consciousness and its Altered States ……………………………………………………………….. 50

Lesson 5: Thinking, Learning and Memory …………………………………………..………………………….. 56

Lesson 6: Personality ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 65

Lesson 7: Health, Stress, and Coping ……………………………………………………………………………….. 75

Lesson 8: Abnormal and Social Psychology ……………………………………………………………………… 82

Post Test …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 95

References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 100

Directions: Choose the best answer.

1. Psychology is defined as the scientific study of

2. What distinguished Wilhelm Wundt’s contribution from other contributions to

3. __________ psychologists make technical systems such as automobile dashboards

7. A neuron can fire up to a limit of about ___________ times per second.

9. Which neurotransmitter is associated with depression?

10. Which of the following are children most likely to “outgrow”?

17. Erikson labeled the life crisis of the middle years as

19. Moderators of stress include all of the following except

23. Imagery in the absence of external stimulation is the definition of _____________,

In this lesson, students will be able to

Engage – Learning Task

Explore – Learning Task

1. Was Phineas Gage lucky or unlucky? Why or why not?

Upload a screenshot of your discussion on Google Classroom.

Intro to Psychology: Crash Course Psychology #1

Counseling Psychology Counseling Psychologists like clinical

School Psychology School Psychologists are employed by

Educational Psychology Educational Psychologists like school

Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychologists study the

Personality Psychology Personality Psychologists identify and

Social Psychology Social Psychologists are concerned with the

Environmental Psychology Environmental Psychologists study the ways

Experimental Psychology Experimental Psychologists specialize in

Industrial Psychology Industrial Psychologists focus on the

Organizational Psychology Organizational Psychologists study the

Human Factors Psychology Human Factors Psychologists make

Health Psychology Health Psychologists study the effects of

Forensic Psychology Forensic Psychologists apply psychology to

Sports Psychology Sport Psychologists help athletes

Aristotle (384 – 32 B.C.E.)

Democritus (400 B.C.E.)

Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801 – 1887)

“What are the pieces that make up thinking and experience?”

Today, we no longer find psychologists who describe themselves as structuralists or

The Biological Perspective

The Cognitive Perspective

The Humanistic – Existential Perspective

The Psychodynamic Perspective

Many contemporary psychologists study the effects of experience on behavior. Learning, to

The Sociocultural Perspective

BIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY

The Nervous System: On Being Wired