KSSM Science Form 4

CHAPTER 5 GENETICS
 5.1 Cell Division 细胞分裂
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q6ucKWI
IFmg
Human cheek cells
Sperm cells and ovum
Blood cells
•Nucleus
• Chromosomes
•DNA
•Gene
1. Cell 细胞 is the basic unit for living
things.
Cell contains nucleus.
2. Chromosome 染色体
- the fine thread-like structures found in
the nucleus of a cell.
3. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
脱氧核糖核酸
- long molecules containing genes.
4. Gene 基因 – an inheritance unit that
Chromosomes
• Human cell contain 46 chromosomes / 23 pair
chromosomes.
• The pair of chromosomes knows as homologous
chromosomes.
• Homologous chromosomes are arranged according their
Male
shape and size. This arrangement called karyotype.
karyotype

Autosome

Sex chromosomes
Male : XY
Female : XX
 Cell division :
1. Mitosis
2. Meiosis
 Mitosis
• Mitosis is a cell division process that forms
two identical daughter cells, each having the
same number of chromosomes and genetic
content as the parent cell.
 Mitosis
• Takes place in somatic cells 体细胞 in human
and animals.
• It also takes place in the meristematic tissue
such as the tip of the roots and the shoot of
the plants.
 Importance of mitosis
• For growth
• To replace damaged cells
• For asexual reproduction
 Importance of mitosis

a. Growth and development

mitosis

b. Replacement of damaged cells

•Allows a multicellular organism to maintain its tissues
which require frequent replacement.
•For example, the skin cells can only live for 2 weeks, after
which new cells are formed through mitosis.
Importance of mitosis

c. Asexual Reproduction

Amoeba sp.

Paramecium sp.
Plants Animals & Human
 Interphase

• Rest phase before mitosis begins.

• At this stage, DNA replication takes place.
The shape of a chromosome that
resembles thin thread cannot be seen
through a microscope .
 Prophase

• The chromosomes in the nucleus shorten,

thicken and become clearly visible.
• Each chromosome consists of two chromatids
joined at the centromere.
 Metaphase

• Spindle fibre

• Chromosomes are arranged at the equatorial

plane. They are attached to spindle fibres
which are connected to the poles.
 Anaphase

• The centromere splits into two. Each

chromatid separates and moves towards the
opposite poles of the cell.
 Telophase

• Chromatids reach the opposite poles. Nuclear

membrane and nucleolus are formed again.
• Two identical daughter cells (new
cells) are formed.
 Meiosis
• Meiosis is a process where the cell
divides into four distinct cells, each
containing half the number of
chromosomes in the parent cell.
 Meiosis
• Takes place in reproductive organs 生殖器官
• To produce gametes( 卵子和精子 )for sexual
reproduction.
• Meiosis in human takes place in the male’s testes
and the female’s ovary.
• In plants, meiosis takes place in the anther and the
ovary.
 Importance of meiosis:
a) formation of gametes
b) to maintain 保持 the number of
chromosomes after fertilisation 受精
c) crossing over is important in meiosis to
produce variation 变异 among offspring 子
孙
Variation in offspring
 Prophase I

• Chromosomes in the nucleus shorten , thicken

and become clearly visible.
• Homologous chromosomes pair together.
Crossing over occurs.
 Metaphase I

• Chromosomes are arranged in an equatorial

plane. The spindle fibres are attached to the
centromere.
 Anaphase I

• Homologous chromosomes separate and

move towards the opposite poles of the cell.
 Telophase I

• Cytoplasm divides
 Prophase II

• Spindle fibres begin to form.

 Metaphase II

• Chromosomes are arranged in an equatorial

plane .
 Anaphase II

• Centromere splits into two.

The sister chromatids separate and move
towards the opposite poles of the cell.
 Telophase II

• The cytoplasm divides and nuclear membrane

forms again. Four non-identical 不相同 daughter
cells are formed. These are gametes (with half
the number of chromosomes of the parent cell).
 The similarities and the differences
between mitosis and meiosis
Similarities:
• Both involved cell division 两者都涉及细胞分
裂
• Replication of DNA happens onceDNA 复制发
生一次
 Differences:
Mitosis
Two daughter cells are
produced
Genetic information of daughter
cells are identical to parent
cells 子细胞的遗传信息与亲代
细胞相同
The number of chromosomes in
daughter cells are the same as
the parent cells 子细胞中的染色
体数与亲代细胞相同
Crossing over does not occur
No variation 没有变化
Meiosis
Four daughter cells are
produced
Genetic information of daughter
cells are varied 子细胞的遗传信
息各不相同
The number of chromosomes in
daughter cells is half of that in
parent cells 子细胞中染色体的
数量是亲代细胞中染色体的一半
Crossing over occur
Has variations 有变化
 Form 4 Science
Chapter 5

5.2 INHERITANCE
 Inheritance in human
• The transmission of certain characteristics
from the parents to the children is known as
inheritance. 继承
 Genes 基因
• Genes are the basic units of inheritance found
in the chromosomes.
• A pair of genes at the same locus or position
in the homologous chromosome will control
one trait of the organism.
• The pair of genes at the same locus is known
as the allele.
 trait 特征
• a genetically determined characteristic.
EXAMPLES :
• Eye colour
• Type of hair (curly or straight)
• Type of ear lobes
• Ability to roll the tongue
• The presence of dimples
 Traits in human
• Hair colour
• Skin colour
• Blood types – A, B, AB, O
• Body height
• Left-handed / right-handed
• Eyebrows………
 Alleles
• Alleles can be found in dominant or recessive
forms.
• The characteristics that are controlled by the
dominant allele will be shown whereas the
recessive allele will be covered.
• The recessive allele would only show the
characteristics it controls when dominant allele is
absent.
• Recessive characteristics will only be shown when
both alleles are recessive.
 Examples of dominant and recessive
alleles in the homologous chromosomes
E eye colour e

B blood type b

H hair colour h

K type of hair k
 Dominant and recessive traits 特征
in human
Dominant trait Recessive
trait
Black hair Blonde hair
Normal colour vision Colour blind
Free ear lobes Attached ear lobes
Ability to rolled the inability to rolled the
tongue tongue
Black hair
Blonde hair
Colour blind
Type of earlobes
Ability to rolled the tongue
 Ability to roll the tongue

Able to roll the tongue Unable to roll the

tongue
 Inheritance 继承 Mechanism
• Gregor Mendel
 Genotype and Phenotype
• Genotype = genetic information in an
organism 生物的遗传组成
Example: BB, Bb, bb
• Phenotype = a physical characteristic
shown in an organism 生物体上可见的
物理特征
Example: black hair, blonde hair
• Homozygote = an individual with
identical genes. Example: TT or tt
• Heterozygote = an individual with two
different genes. Example: Tt
• Monohybrid cross = a cross carried out
to study the inheritance of a single trait.
• The offspring of the first generation of
the cross forms the first filial generation
子代 (F1).
 Schematic diagram of monohybrid
crossing for height

F1
offspring
F1
offspring
 EXAMPLE 1 (REFER TEXTBOOK P.86)
Parental pure-breeding pure-breeding
phenotype : tall pea plant x dwarf pea plant
Parental TT tt
genotype : meiosis meiosis

Gamete :
fertilisation T T t t
F1 offspring
genotypes :
F1 offspring Tt Tt Tt Tt
phenotypes : tall tall tall tall
What happens when two F1 tall
pea plants are crossed?
 (refer textbook p.87)
Parental
phenotype : tall pea plant x tall pea plant
Parental Tt Tt
genotype : meiosis meiosis

Gamete :
fertilisation T t T t
F2 offspring
genotypes :
F2 offspring TT Tt Tt tt
phenotypes : tall tall tall dwarf
 Example 2 (ability to roll tongue)
Parental Father (able mother (unable
phenotype : to roll tongue) x to roll tongue)
Parental BB bb
genotype : meiosis meiosis

Gamete :
fertilisation B B b b
F1 offspring
genotypes :
F1 offspring Bb Bb Bb Bb
phenotypes : tall tall tall tall
 Sex Determination in Human Being
A male and female have 46 chromosomes.
They are made up of :
44 autosome (chromosomes 1–22) and
2 sex chromosomes.
The sex chromosomes are different: There are
two copies of the X-chromosome in females, but
males have a single X-chromosome and a Y-
chromosome.
Male : 44 + XY

Sex
chromosomes
Female : 44 + XX

Sex
chromosomes
 Schematic diagram of determining a
child’s gender (refer textbook p.89)
Parents : father x mother
Parental 44 + XY 44 + XX
genotype : meiosis meiosis

Gamete : sperm ovum

fertilisation 22 + X 22 + Y 22 + X 22 + X
Offspring
genotypes :
Offspring 44 + XX 44 + XX 44 + XY 44 + XY
phenotypes : female female male male
 Sex Determination in Human Being
• Based on the schematic diagram, the chances
of getting a male or a female offspring at each
pregnancy is equal, which is 50%
• Ratio of female to male = 2 : 2
=1:1
This means that, for every pregnancy, the
chance to get a female or male newborn is
50%.
 Sex Determination in Human Being
HOTS Question:
Mr. Tan and Mrs.Tan have two children. Their
first child is a boy and the second child is a girl.
What is the chance of their third child being a
girl?
A Not possible
B 50%
C 25%
D 100%
(the answer is : B)
 FORM 4 SCIENCE
CHAPTER 5

5.3 MUTATION 突变
A normal human has 46 chromosomes
 5.3 Mutation 突变
• A change in the genetic information
of an individual is called mutation.
• It is spontaneous 自发 .
• It happens randomly. 随机
 Types of mutations
a) Chromosome mutation – refers to changes in
the structure or number of chromosomes.
Such changes occur as a result of errors in
cell division.
b) Gene mutation – due to chemical changes in
individual genes.
 Chromosome mutation 染色体突变
a) Down syndrome (an extra chromosome 21)
b) Klinefelter syndrome (XXY)
c) Turner syndrome (XO)
Down’s syndrome
 Down
Syndrome
(extra
chromosome
21)
 Klinefelter
syndrome (XXY)
Turner syndrome (XO)
Turner’s syndrome (XO)
 Gene Mutation 基因突变
a) Colour blindness 色盲
b) Albinism 白化病
c) Sickle cell anaemia 镰状细胞性贫血
d) Thalassemia 地中海贫血
e) Haemophilia 血友病
Colour blindness 色盲
Albinism
Sickle cell anaemia 镰状细胞性贫血
Thalassemia 地中海贫血
Thalassemia major
Haemophilia 血友病
 Factors that cause mutation
• Natural 自然
• Radioactive rays
• X-rays
• Ultraviolet rays
• Carcinogens (cancer causing agent)
• Pregnancy at a late age
Mustard gas
effects
 Gene Disorder Disease
• Alleles also carry the disease trait that can be
inherited in a family.
Inheritance of gene disorder disease
 Inheritance of a type of gene disorder disease(p.94)
gene disorder gene disorder
Parents : disease sufferer X disease carrier
Parental Father (colour blind) Mother (Carrier)
genotype : XbY XBXb
meiosis meiosis

Gamete :
fertilisation X b
Y XB
X b

Offspring
genotypes :
Offspring X
female X
B b
X X
b b
female male X B
Y male Y
X b

phenotypes : (carrier) (colour blind) (normal) (colour blind)

Colour blindness
 Gene Disorder Disease
• Most of the genes that control a trait are
located on autosomes. However, there are also
traits that are located on the sex chromosomes.
• This trait is known as sex-linked trait.
• The genes that are located on the sex
chromosomes are called sex-linked genes.
• For example, the blood clotting failure traits
that cause haemophilia.
• XH is the dominant allele (normal)
• Xh is the recessive allele (haemophilia)
 Inheritance of a type of gene disorder disease(p.95)
Parental
Phenotype : Father (normal) Mother (Carrier)
Parental
genotype :
XHY XHXh
meiosis meiosis

Gamete : XH Y XH Xh
fertilisation
Offspring
genotypes :
XHXH XHXh XHY Xh Y
Offspring female female male male
phenotypes : (normal) (carrier) (normal) (carrier)
 Methods to identify gene disorder
diseases:
• Amniocentesis
• Karyotyping
Amniocentesis or Amniotic fluid test (AFT)
image credits to https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amniocentesis
Karyotyping
 Application of Genetic Research to
Improve Quality of Life
• Forensic Science
• Gene Therapy
• Genetic Genealogy
Forensic Science 法医学
Gene Therapy 基因治疗
Genetic Genealogy 遗传家谱
 The effect of Genetic Research on
Human Lives
• Act. 5.5 (p.99)
• Aim : To debate on the effects of genetic
research
Science Form 4 Chapter 5

5.4 Genetic Engineering

Technology
 Genetic Engineering Technology
• This ia a term used for genetic modification of
an organism.
• Genetic engineering was first introduced
around 1971-1973 and is known as genetic
engineering science.
• It is related to recombinant DNA, genetically
modified organisms (GMO) and gene therapy.
 Recombinant DNA Technology
• It is a technology that combines two different
species to produce a new genetic
characteristic.
• Image credits to
https://byjus.com/biology/tools-recombinant-dna
-technology/
Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)
• It refers to an organism (plant, animal,
bacteria or virus) which has been genetically
modified for a particular purpose.
Genetically modified food
The effects of genetic engineering
technology in life
Advantages:
1. Identifies and determines hereditary diseases
and consequently treat the disease.
2. Produces quality plants and livestock.
3. Produces plants and livestock that has high
resistance towards diseases compared to the
earlier generation.
4. Produces more plants that require shorter time
to harvest.
5. Produces insulin and enzymes from bacteria that
can improve human health.
 The effects of genetic engineering
technology in life
Disadvantages:
1. Causes allergy and side effects
2. Causes original species to become extinct
3. Causes side effect such as mutation
4. May produce biological weapons
5. Produce organisms that have high resistance
to pesticides.
 Ethics in genetic engineering
technology
• Needs to be carried out in high integrity
• Ethics and values must be practised (do not
touch on religious and moral sensitivities)
 He Jiankui claimed to have helped make the
world’s first genetically edited babies — twin
girls Lula and Nana — back in November 2018
 using the gene-editing tool CRISPR/Cas9.
• Chinese researcher claims first gene-edited
babies
https://apnews.com/4997bb7aa36c45449b488e1
9ac83e86d
• China jails scientists behind first genetically
engineered babies
https://www.theverge.com/2019/12/30/2104253
0/china-gene-editing-scientist-he-jiankuiprison-fin
e-sentenced-designer-babies-lulu-nana
Science Form 4 Chapter 5

5.5 Variation
 Variation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ek
DzlSB1p28
• Variation refers to the differences
between individuals of the same
species.
 Continuous Variation
• The variation that shows difference that
are not distinct 不明显 or not clear
between individuals.
• It is quantitative. It can be measured
and represented by a normal
distribution curve.
• Examples: heights of students, weight of
human, skin colour, intelligence.
Continuous Variation – graph showing
Continuous
normal distribution in human height
 Discontinuous variation
• When the differences among individuals
fall into distinct 明显 categories, the
variation is called discontinuous variation.
• The graph is in discrete 分离 shape.
• Examples: the ability or inability to roll
tongue, variation in ear lobes, blood group
Discontinuous variation – bar chart showing
discrete distribution in blood group
 Factors that cause variation
a) Genetic factors
b) Environmental factors
• Continuous variation is caused by
genetic as well as environmental
factors.
• Discontinuous variation is caused by
genetic factors only.
 Genetic factors
• In meiosis, two events occur which
result in the gametes having different
genetic information:
a) Crossing-over
b) Independent distribution of
chromosomes
c) Random fertilisation between male
and female gametes
d) Chromosome and gene mutation
Crossing-over in meiosis
 Crossing-over in meiosis
• During crossing-over, chromatids of a
pair of chromosomes exchange
genetic material.
Independent distribution of chromosomes
 Independent distribution of
chromosomes
• At a stage in meiosis, pairs of
chromosomes arrange themselves at
the cell equator.
• The arrangement is random. Hence,
the gametes formed have different
genetic information.
 Environmental factors
• Such as climatic factors, nutrition and
physical activities.
• Example:
-frequent exposure to Sun causes
fishermen to have darker skin compared
to office workers.
-eating excessively will make a person fat
 The importance of variation
• Enables the organisms to adapt themselves to
their environment, thus to ensure the survival
of a species.
• Enable nature to select which favourable
characteristics to carry on and which to end.
• In agriculture, variations in crop plants and
animals allow selective breeding procedure to
be used.