CELL CYLE (MEIOSIS) & STEM

CELLS
TOPIC 4
 WHAT ARE STEM CELLS?
• All stem cells, no matter their source, are unspecialized
cells that give rise to more specialized cells. Stem cells
can become one of more than 200 specialized cells in the
body. They serve as the body’s repair system by renewing
themselves and replenishing more specialized cells in the
body

4.2 STEM CELLS

• At the end of this topic, YOU should be able to
• Define what is meant by stem cells
• Distinguish between adults and embryonic stem cells
• State examples of different types of stem cells

4.2 stem cells: learning

outcomes
TYPES OF STEM CELLS
eurostemcell.org
• Embryonic stem cells
• from a five to six-day-old embryo. They have the ability to form
virtually any type of cell found in the human body.
• Embryonic germ cells
• derived from the part of a human embryo or fetus that will ultimately
produce gametes (eggs or sperm).
• Adult stem cells
• undifferentiated cells found among specialized (differentiated) cells in
a tissue or organ after birth. Based on current research, adult stem
cells appear to have a more restricted ability to produce different cell
types and to self-renew than embryonic stem cells.
• Umbilical cord blood stem cells/ Post-natal stem cells
• used to treat a range of blood disorders and immune system
conditions.

TYPES OF STEM CELLS

 Development potential of stem cells
Stem cells growing in culture

• pluripotent
• Having potential to develop into any of the cell types found in an
adult organism
• eg Embryonic stem cells

• multipotent
• Stems cells that only have the potential to make a few cell types in the body
• eg Adult stem cells

• totipotent
• Cells that are capable of forming a completely new embryo that can develop
into a new organism
• eg fertilized egg is totipotent. None of the stem cells used in research appear
to have this capacity.
Future Research Areas:
Stem Cells
More basic research is required to find out how stem cells can be:
• located and extracted
• kept alive in the laboratory
• multiplied for extended periods of time
• directed to form specific types of specialized cells.
• Prof Harry Moore – use of stem cells to regain sight
(University of Sheffield, UK)
• Moore, H., Udayashankar, R. & Aflatoonian, B. (2008).
Stem cells for reproductive medicine. Molecular and
Cellular Endocrinology, 288(1-2):104-110.
Cleaving zygote (source of cell)
HOW TO OBTAIN
A CLEAVING
ZYGOTE?
What do you think this is?
 4.3 MEIOSIS
Learning Outcomes:

Define meiosis
Compare meiosis and mitosis
Identify the importance of meiosis
Explain the chromosomal behaviour and structural
organisation of cell during mitosis
• Why do you share some but not all characters of each
parent?
• What are the rules of this sharing game?
• At one level, the answers lie in meiosis.

Meiosis – A
Source of
Distinction
What is meiosis?

• form of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms by

which two consecutive nuclear divisions (meiosis I and
meiosis II)

• Product of meiosis is four haploid gametes (sex cells)

• each containing one of every pair of homologous

chromosomes (maternal and paternal
chromosomes being distributed randomly between the cells).

MEIOSIS- DEFINITION
In simpler terms:
• Meiosis takes a cell with two copies of every chromosome
(diploid) and makes cells with a single copy of every
chromosome (haploid).
• aka Reduction division
n

2n n n
n
diploid cell produces four haploid cells.
In simpler terms:
• Meiosis scrambles the specific forms of each gene that
each sex cell (egg or sperm) receives.

Responsible for genetic DIVERSITY

• Through independent assortment and crossing-over
• Important for evolution of population and species also for
continuation of species
 Parent cell –
chromosome pair
Chromosomes
copied
1st division
pairs split

2nd division – produces

4 gamete cells with ½

Meiosis the original no. of

chromosomes
Meiosis – mouse testes

Parent cell 1st division

2nd division 4 gametes

Image source: Dr Nooraain Hashim

• Meiosis is necessary to halve the number of
chromosomes going into the sex cells

Why halve the chromosomes in gametes?

• At fertilization the male and female sex cells will

provide ½ of the chromosomes each – so the offspring
has genes from both parents

Why is Meiosis essential

in cell cycle
Before we discuss meiosis in detail, let us review the 5 typical
stages of cell cycle:

Meiosis I- has
I- Interphase all 5 stages
P- Prophase
M- Metaphase Meiosis II-
A- Anaphase LACKS
T- Telophase Interphase
 Meiosis I : Separates
Homologous Chromosomes
Interphase

• Each of the chromosomes replicate

• The result is two genetically identical sister chromatids

which remain attached at their centromeres
• This is a crucial phase for mitosis.

• each pair of chromatids match up with their homologous

pair and fasten together (synapsis) in a group of four
called a tetrad.

• Extremely IMPORTANT!!! It is during this phase that

crossing over can occur.
• Crossing Over is the exchange of segments during synapsis.

Prophase I
• The chromosomes line up at the equator attached by their
centromeres to spindle fibers from centrioles.

• Still in homologous pairs

Metaphase I
• The spindle guides the movement of the
chromosomes toward the poles
• Sister chromatids remain attached
• Move as a unit towards the same pole

• The homologous chromosome moves toward

the opposite pole
• Contrasts mitosis – chromosomes appear as
individuals instead of pairs (meiosis)

Anaphase I
• This is the end of the first meiotic cell division.
• The cytoplasm divides, forming two new daughter
cells.
• Each of the newly formed cells has half the number of
the parent cell’s
chromosomes, but each
chromosome is already
replicated ready for the
second meiotic cell division

Telophase I
• Occurs simultaneously with telophase I
• Forms 2 daughter cells

• Via formation of
• cell plate- Plant cells
• cleavage furrows -Animal cells

• NO FURTHER REPLICATION OF GENETIC

MATERIAL PRIOR TO THE SECOND DIVISION OF
MEIOSIS

Cytokinesis
 Meiosis II :
Separates sister chromatids

• Progress similar to
mitosis

• NO interphase
• Each of the daughter cells
forms a spindle, and
the double stranded
chromosomes move
toward the equator

Prophase II
• The chromosomes are
positioned on the metaphase
plate in a mitosis-like fashion

Metaphase II
• The centromeres of sister chromatids finally
separate
• The sister chromatids of
each pair move toward
opposite poles
• Now individual chromosomes

Anaphase II
• Nuclei form at opposite poles of the cell and
cytokinesis occurs
• After completion of cytokinesis there are four
daughter cells
• All are haploid (n)

Telophase II and
cytokinesis
 Describe
what you see
 Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles
contributes to evolution
• Mutations (changes in an organism’s DNA) are the
original source of genetic diversity
• Mutations create different versions of genes called
alleles
• Reshuffling of alleles during sexual reproduction
produces genetic variation

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Origins of Genetic Variation Among Offspring

• The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and

fertilization is responsible for most of the variation
that arises in each generation
• Three mechanisms contribute to genetic variation:
• Independent assortment of chromosomes
• Crossing over
• Random fertilization

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 Independent Assortment
of Chromosomes
• Homologous pairs of chromosomes orient randomly
at metaphase I of meiosis
• In independent assortment, each pair of
chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal
homologues into daughter cells independently of the
other pairs

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 Independent Assortment of
Chromosomes

• The number of combinations possible when

chromosomes assort independently into gametes
is 2n, where n is the haploid number
• For humans (n = 23), there are more than 8
million (223) possible combinations of
chromosomes

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 13-11-1

Possibility 1 Possibility 2

Two equally probable

arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I
Fig. 13-11-2

Possibility 1 Possibility 2

Two equally probable

arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I

Metaphase II
Fig. 13-11-3

Possibility 1 Possibility 2

Two equally probable

arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I

Metaphase II

Daughter
cells
Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3 Combination 4
 Crossing Over

• Crossing over produces recombinant

chromosomes, which combine genes inherited from
each parent
• Crossing over begins very early in prophase I, as
homologous chromosomes pair up gene by gene

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 Crossing Over
• In crossing over, homologous portions of two
nonsister chromatids trade places
• Crossing over contributes to genetic variation
by combining DNA from two parents into a
single chromosome

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 13-12-1
Prophase I Nonsister
of meiosis chromatids
Pair of held together
homologs during synapsis
Fig. 13-12-2
Prophase I Nonsister
of meiosis chromatids
Pair of held together
homologs during synapsis

Chiasma

Centromere
TEM
Fig. 13-12-3
Prophase I Nonsister
of meiosis chromatids
Pair of held together
homologs during synapsis

Chiasma

Centromere
TEM

Anaphase I
Fig. 13-12-4
Prophase I Nonsister
of meiosis chromatids
Pair of held together
homologs during synapsis

Chiasma

Centromere
TEM

Anaphase I

Anaphase II
Fig. 13-12-5
Prophase I Nonsister
of meiosis chromatids
Pair of held together
homologs during synapsis

Chiasma

Centromere
TEM

Anaphase I

Anaphase II

Daughter
cells
Recombinant chromosomes
 Random Fertilization
• Random fertilization adds to genetic variation
because any sperm can fuse with any ovum
(unfertilized egg)
• The fusion of two gametes (each with 8.4 million
possible chromosome combinations from
independent assortment) produces a zygote with any
of about 70 trillion diploid combinations

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 The Evolutionary Significance of
Genetic Variation Within Populations
• Natural selection results in the accumulation of
genetic variations favored by the environment
• Sexual reproduction contributes to the genetic
variation in a population, which originates from
mutations
• Crossing over adds even more variation
• Each zygote has a unique genetic identity

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 13-UN1

Prophase I: Each homologous pair undergoes

synapsis and crossing over between nonsister
chromatids.

Metaphase I: Chromosomes line up as homolo-

gous pairs on the metaphase plate.

Anaphase I: Homologs separate from each other;

sister chromatids remain joined at the centromere.
Fig. 13-UN2

H
Fig. 13-UN3
Fig. 13-UN4
 Another Way Meiosis Makes Lots of
Different Sex Cells: Crossing-Over

Crossing-over multiplies the already huge number of different

gamete types produced by independent assortment.
• Difference in terms of
• Definition
• Product at end of process
• Number of chromosome
• Type of cells involved
• Genotypes produced at end of process

NOT limited to this list. There are other differences!!

Are you able to
Differentiate between
MITOsis and MEIOsis
The Key Difference Between Mitosis and Meiosis is
the Way Chromosomes Uniquely Pair and Align in
Meiosis

MITOSIS MIEOSIS
The first (and
distinguishing)
division
 Mitosis Meiosis

Mitosis takes place within somatic cells (cells that

1. Meiosis takes place within gamete cells (sex cells).
make up the body).

One single division of the mother cell results in two Two divisions of the mother cell result in four meiotic
2.
daughter cells. products or haploid gametes.

A mitotic mother cell can either be haploid or

3. A meiotic mother cell is always diploid.
diploid.

The meiotic products contain a haploid (n) number of

The number of chromosomes per nucleus remains
4. chromosomes in contrast to the (2n) number of
the same after division.
chromosomes in mother cell.

It is preceded by a S-phase in which the amount of

5. In meiosis, only meiosis I is preceded by a S-phase.
DNA is duplicated.

In mitosis, there is no pairing of homologous During prophase I, complete pairing of all homologous
6.
chromosomes. chromosomes takes place.

There is no exchange of DNA (crossing-over) There is at least one crossing-over or DNA exchange per
7.
between chromosomes. homologous pair of chromosomes.

The centromeres do separate during anaphase II, but

8. The centromeres split during anaphase.
not during anaphase I.

The genotype of the daughter cells is identical to Meiotic products differ in their genotype from the mother
9.
that of the mother cells. cell.

After mitosis, each daughter cell has exactly same After meiosis, each daughter cell has only half of the
10.
DNA strands. DNA strands
Boy or Girl? The Y Chromosome “Decides”

Y chromosome
X chromosome
Boy or Girl? The Y Chromosome “Decides”
Meiosis – division error

Chromosome pair
Meiosis error

Should the gamete with

the chromosome pair be
fertilized then the offspring
will not be ‘normal’.

In humans this often

occurs with the 21st pair –
producing a child with
Downs Syndrome
21 trisomy – Downs Syndrome

Can you see the

extra 21st
chromosome?

Is this person male

or female?
END OF TOPIC 4