Sexual reproduction and genetic

recombination
Sexual Reproduction
• Diploid organisms reproduce sexually
• Inside the nucleus of every cell there are 2 chromosome
sets, one from each parent
• These pairs are reffered to as homologous chromosomes
• They are the same in size and shape
Sexual Reproduction
• Even though there are genes for the same atribute in the
same place on the homologous chromosomes, they don’t
always have to be identical
• Different variations of the same gene are called alleles
 Sexual Reproduction
• During the life span of a sex cell, a new kind of division must
occur, one that halves the number of chromosomes in the cell
• This process is called meiosis, or reductional division
• This happens in the genitals of the organism
• During fertilization, two gamets of the opposite sex combine
into a zygote, a fertilized egg cell that is diploid
 Sexual Reproduction
• With plants, the zygote and the plant that grows out of it are
part of the diploid generation
• The fluctuation between diploid and haploid is called the
alteration of generations
• Through mitosis grows a haploid generation (a gamethophyte)
 Meiosis is a special type of cell division in which
chromosomes duplicate only once, but the cell
divides twice. So one parental cell produces 4
daughter cells, each having half the chromosome
number and DNA amount than the normal parental
cell. So meiosis is called “Reductional Division.”
or
A type of cell division that results in four daughter
cells each with half the number of chromosomes of
the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and
plant spores.
In many ways, meiosis is a lot like mitosis. The cell goes through
similar stages and uses similar strategies to organize and separate
chromosomes. In meiosis, however, the cell has a more complex
task. It still needs to separate sister chromatids (the two halves of a
duplicated chromosome), as in mitosis. But it must also
separate homologous chromosomes, the similar but nonidentical
chromosome pairs an organism receives from its two parents.
These goals are accomplished in meiosis using a two-step division
process. Homologue pairs separate during a first round of cell
division, called meiosis I. Sister chromatids separate during a
second round, called meiosis II.
 Meiosis I
• Interphase
• In the interphase, the DNA in the cell is copied and results
in two identical sets of chromosomes
• Also, two centrosomes position themselves outside the
nucleus, each containing two centrioles which are vital for
cell division
 Meiosis I
• Prophase I
• In the Prophase, the chromosomes group up and condense into
X-shaped structures, each composed of two sister chromatids
• They pair up so that both copies of each chromosome are
together (two copies of chromosome one, then 2 of
chromosome two and so on)
• Then the chromosome pairs exchange DNA bits trough a process
called crossing over
• At the end of the prophase the membrane of the nucleus
dissolves and the meiotic spindle extends across the cell
 Meiosis I
• Metaphase I
• In the Metaphase the chromosomes line up at the equator
of the cell (the centre)
• Then the already positioned centrioles connect their
meiotic spindle to one chromosome of each pair
 Meiosis I

• Anaphase I
• In this phase the chromosome pairs are pulled apart and
one chromosome goes to one end and the other to the
other end of the cell
• In Anaphase of Meiosis I the sister chromatids stay together
 Meiosis I

• Telophase I
• In Telophase, the chromosomes complete their move to the
opposite poles of the cell
• At each pole of the cell a full set of chromosomes gather
together and membranes form to create two new nuclei
 Meiosis I

• Cytokinesis
• The single cell then pinches in the middle to form two
separate daughter cells
• Each contains a full set of chromosomes within a nucleus
Meiosis II
Cells move from meiosis I to meiosis II without copying their DNA.
Meiosis II is a shorter and simpler process than meiosis I, and you
may find it helpful to think of meiosis II as “mitosis for haploid cells."
The cells that enter meiosis II are the ones made in meiosis I. These
cells are haploid—have just one chromosome from each homologue
pair—but their chromosomes still consist of two sister chromatids.
In meiosis II, the sister chromatids separate, making haploid cells
with non-duplicated chromosomes.
Meiosis II
• Prophase II
• In the Prophase of Meiosis II, there are 2 daughter cells each
with 23 chromosomes
• The chromosomes condense again into X shaped chromosomes
in each of the two cells
• The membrane around the nucleus in each daughter cell
dissolves away releasing the chromosomes
• The centrioles duplicate
• The meiotic spindle forms again
 Meiosis II

• Metaphase II
• In each of the two daughter cells, the chromosomes line up
at the center of the cell
• Then the already positioned centrioles connect their
meiotic spindle to one chromosome of each pair
 Meiosis II
• Anaphase II
• In this phase, the chromosome pairs are pulled apart and
one chromosome goes to one end and the other to the
other end of the cell
• The separated chromatids now act as individual
chromosomes
 Meiosis II
• Telophase II
• In the Telophase the chromosomes complete their move to
the opposite poles of the cell
• At each pole of the cell, a full set of chromosomes gather
together and membranes form to create two new nuclei
• This is the last phase of Meiosis but the cell division is not
complete without another round of cytokinesis
 Meiosis II
• Cytokinesis
• Once cytokinesis is complete, we get 4 granddaughter cells
each with a half set of chromosomes -- in other word, a
haploid
• In males these 4 cells are all sperm cells
• In females one of these cells is an egg cell the other three
are polar bodies (small cells that don’t develop into eggs)
Mitosis vs. Meiosis
Mitosis vs. Meiosis
QUESTIONS???