MITOSIS

• A period of continuous activity which is necessary for the survival of all eukaryotic
organisms.
• Occurs in somatic/body cells.
• Produces daughter cells with a full diploid chromosomes.
• Also a means of asexual reproduction in some organisms (protozoans and algae).
• Four phases of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
MEIOSIS

• Process of cell division that takes place in sexually mature organisms.

• It is a process that results in the reduction of the chromosome number from diploid to
haploid in germ cells.
• Produces gametes that only have one haploid set of chromosomes.
• Ensures the genetic continuity of species and genetic variations.
• Divided into meiosis I (reduction division) and meiosis II with a short phase between the
two called interkinesis.
Mitosis
- 4 stages (plus Interface)
Meiosis
Same - Produce
- 8 stages (plus interface)
- Happens in somatic cells new
- Similar - Happens in germ cells
- Purpose is cellular
basic - Purpose is sexual reproduction
cells
steps -produces 4 Haploid cells
proliferation
- Start with - Chromosome
- Produces 2 Diploid cells a number is
- Chromosome number single halved in each
daughter cell
remains the same parent
- cell - Genetic variation increased
- Genetic variation
doesn’t change
MITOSIS
• Prophase
• Chromatin condenses into more discreet chromosomes.
• Nuclear envelope starts to disintegrate .
• Spindles form at opposite “poles” of the cell.
• Nucleolus disappears.
• Chromatin fibers become coiled into chromosomes with each
chromosome having two chromatids joined at a centromere.
• Centrosome divides into two, each attached with pair of
centrioles.
MITOSIS
• Prophase
• Centrioles move to opposite ends to form the mitotic spindle
in the cytoplasm.
• In animal cells, the mitotic spindle initially appears as
structures called asters which surround each pair of
centrioles. In the late prophase, the cell membrane has totally
disintegrated and the cell is now ready to enter metaphase.
 WHAT’S THE WORD AGAIN?

• Chromatin
• - a substance within a chromosome
consisting of DNA and protein
• - Under the microscope in its extended
form, chromatin looks like beads on a
string. The beads are called nucleosomes.
Each nucleosome is composed of DNA
wrapped around eight proteins called
histones.
 WHAT’S THE WORD AGAIN?

• Chromosomes
• - In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA
molecule is packaged into thread-like
structures called chromosomes. Each
chromosome is made up of DNA tightly
coiled many times around proteins called
histones that support its structure.
 WHAT’S THE WORD AGAIN?
• Chromosomes
• - Each chromosome has a constriction point
called the centromere, which divides the
chromosome into two sections, or “arms.” The
short arm of the chromosome is labeled the “p
arm.” The long arm of the chromosome is labeled
the “q arm.” The location of the centromere on
each chromosome gives the chromosome its
characteristic shape, and can be used to help
describe the location of specific genes.
 WHAT’S THE WORD AGAIN?
• Chromatids
• - A sister chromatid refers to the identical copies
(chromatids) formed by the DNA replication of a
chromosome, with both copies joined together
by a common centromere. In other words, a
sister chromatid may also be said to be 'one-half'
of the duplicated chromosome. A pair of sister
chromatids is called a dyad.
 WHAT’S THE WORD AGAIN?
• Centromere
• - In eukaryotes, a centromere is a region of DNA that
is responsible for the movement of the replicated
chromosomes into the two daughter cells during
mitosis and meiosis.
• structure in a chromosome that holds together the two
chromatids (the daughter strands of a replicated
chromosome). The centromere is the point of
attachment of the kinetochore, a structure to which the
microtubules of the mitotic spindle become anchored.
 WHAT’S THE WORD AGAIN?
• Centrosome
• - A centrosome is an organelle that is found
close to the nucleus within the cytoplasm of cells.
... Each centrosome consists of two centrioles
that are orientated at right-angles to each other.
Each centriole is a cylindrical array of 9
microtubules.
• Another name for centrosome is
"microtubule-organizing center." The centrioles
function as compression-resisting girders of the
cytoskeleton.
WHAT’S THE WORD AGAIN?
 WHAT’S THE WORD AGAIN?
• Mitotic spindle
• - During mitosis, the spindle fibers are called the
mitotic spindle. ... Long protein fibers called
microtubules extend from the centrioles in all
possible directions, forming what is called a
spindle. Some of the microtubules attach the
poles to the chromosomes by connecting to
protein complexes called kinetochores.
 WHAT’S THE WORD AGAIN?
• Mitotic spindle
• - Long protein fibers called microtubules extend
from the centrioles in all possible directions,
forming what is called a spindle. ... Some of the
microtubules attach the poles to the
chromosomes by connecting to protein
complexes called kinetochores.
 METAPHASE
• Spindle fibers are fully developed.
• Chromosomes align at the equatorial plate.
• 2 pairs of centrioles align at opposite poles of the cell.
• Polar fibers continue to extend from the poles to the
center of the cell.
• Chromosomes start to move randomly until they attach
to the polar fibers from both sides of the centromeres.
• Chromosomes align at the equatorial plate at right angles
to the spindle poles
 ANAPHASE
• Characterized by the separation of the chromosomes.
• Begin to move toward the opposite poles of the cell.
• Spindle fibers not connected to chromatids lengthen and
elongate the cell.
• Centromeres start to move apart.
• Sister chromatids separate from each other and each is
considered a “full chromosome”.
• Spindle apparatus moves the daughter chromosomes
toward the poles at the opposite ends of the cell.
• As telophase comes closer, the two cell poles also move farther
apart. At the end of anaphase, each pole contains a complete
set of chromosomes.
TELOPHASE
• The complete sets of chromosomes during telophase
are cordoned off into new distinct nuclei of the
daughter cells.
• Polar spindle fibers continue to lengthen and the
nuclei are prominent along the opposite poles.
• Nuclear envelopes of the two nuclei start to reappear.
They were derived from the parent cell’s nuclear
envelope and pieces of the endomembrane system.
• Nucleolus starts to reappear in each cell.
• Chromatin fibers of chromosomes uncoil.
• After these changes, the cell finally divides into two
new cells.
CYTOKINESIS
• Follows right after the process of mitosis and completes the full stage of
the cell cycle.
• Occurs when cytoplasm from the original cell divides and forms 2 new
cells.
• Each newly-formed cell contains one of the 2 nuclei formed during mitosis.
• The process also separates the organelles and other cytoplasmic
inclusions such as ribosomes, ER, Golgi bodies and mitochondria.
• In most cases, the two new cells formed are equal in size.
• Cell membrane forms a cleavage furrow in animal cells pulled inward by
tiny filament.
• In plant cells, cell plate form between two nuclei. This is produced by the
Golgi body which supplies the new plasma membrane.
• A new cell wall then forms on both sides of the cell plate, creating two
cells from one.
MEIOSIS I
• Has the following phases.
• 1. Prophase I
• II. Metaphase I
• III. Anaphase I
• IV. Telophase I
PROPHASE I
• Nuclear membrane and nucleolus start to disappear.
• Cell shows visible chromosomes that are already replicated
even during the preceding S phase.
• Spindle fibers become visible.
• Each chromosome is composed of 2 sister chromatids held
together by a centromere (also called dyad).
• Crossing over takes place between 2 non-sister chromatids
along a point called chiasma (pl. chiasmata)
• The other two remain uncrossed.
• Crossing over results in genetic recombination and accounts
for genetic variation.
PROPHASE I
• Characterized by synapses or homologous pairing
of chromosomes or pairing of homologous
chromosomes.
• Homologous chromosomes have the same length,
staining pattern, and position of the centromere.
• Homologous chromosomes are important because they
allow for the recombination and random segregation of
genetic material from the mother and father into new cells.

• Tetrad is four sister chromatids.

METAPHASE I
• Tetrads are moved by the spindle fibers to
the equator of the cell. Homologous pairs of
chromosomes remain together.
• Spindle fibers increase in number. This is the
part where the kinetochore of the
chromosome will attach to facilitate
movement.
ANAPHASE I
Homologous pairs of chromosomes (dyads)
separate and migrate toward their respective poles.
The sister chromatids still remain attached at their
centromere and move together toward the poles.
TELOPHASE I
• Two daughter cells are completely divided
during telophase I.
• The number of chromosomes in both cells
is the same.
• A nuclear envelope and nuclei reappear and
the chromosomes become less visible.
INTERKINESIS I
• A short pause between meiosis I and
meiosis II.
• Similar to interphase of mitosis.
• There is no replication of the
chromosome.
MEIOSIS II
• Composed of the following
phases:
• Prophase II
• Metaphase II
• Anaphase II
• Telophase II
PROPHASE II
• Nuclear envelope and nucleoli disappear
and the chromatids start to shorten and
thicken.
• Centrioles move to opposite poles and
spindle fibers arrange in preparation for
the coming.
METAPHASE II
• Characterized by the movement of
chromosomes to the cell equator.
• Each chromosome is composed of 2
sister chromatids that are joined by a
centromere and are attached to the
spindle fiber.
ANAPHASE II
• Centromeres joining the chromatids
divide, allowing microtubules attached to
the kinetochores to pull the sister
chromatids apart.
• The sister chromatids are now called
sister chromosomes as they move
toward the opposite poles.
TELOPHASE II
• As the spindle fibers dissolve, a nuclear
membrane forms around the
chromosomes of each daughter cells.
• Chromosomes uncoil and lengthen.
• Cleavage furrow eventually produces a
total of 2 daughter cells each with a
haploid set of chromosomes.
• Since there are 2 cells undergoing
meiosis II, at the end of this process a
total of 4 new cells with haploid
chromosomes are produced.
GAMETOGENESIS
• Spermatogenesis
• Oogenesis
WHAT ABOUT THIS?

• If a cell divides every 4 hours, how many cells will be produced after 8 hours?
• If human cells have 48 chromosomes, how many chromosomes will each cell receive after
mitosis? After meiosis?
• Why do some eggs have two egg yolks?
• What is the function of the cell plate?
• If a cell with 24 chromosomes undergoes meiosis, how many cells will be formed after
the process? How many chromosomes will each cell have?
SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS :

* MITOSIS IS IMPORTANT FOR THE MAINTENANCE OF THE

CHROMOSOMAL SET

*EACH CELL FORMED RECEIVES CHROMOSOMES THAT ARE

ALIKE IN COMPOSITION AND EQUAL IN NUMBER TO THE
CHROMOSOMES OF THE PARENT CELL.
MITOSIS OCCURS IN THE FOLLOWING
CIRCUMSTANCES:
Development and growth
• The number of cells within an organism
increases by mitosis. This is the basis of
the development of a multicellular body
from a single cell, i.e., zygote and also
the basis of the growth of a
multicellular body.
MITOSIS OCCURS IN THE FOLLOWING
CIRCUMSTANCES:
Cell replacement
• In some parts of body, e.g. skin and digestive tract,
cells are constantly sloughed off and replaced by
new ones. New cells are formed by mitosis and so
are exact copies of the cells being replaced. In like
manner, red blood cells have short lifespan (only
about 4 months) and new RBCs are formed by
mitosis.
• Some organisms can regenerate body parts. The
production of new cells in such instances is
achieved by mitosis. For example, starfish
regenerate lost arms through mitosis.
MITOSIS OCCURS IN THE FOLLOWING
CIRCUMSTANCES:
Asexual reproduction
Some organisms produce genetically similar
offspring through asexual reproduction. For
example, the hydra reproduces asexually by
budding. The cells at the surface of hydra
undergo mitosis and form a mass called a
bud. Mitosis continues in the cells of the bud
and this grows into a new individual. The
same division happens during asexual
reproduction or vegetative propagation in
plants.
MITOSIS OCCURS IN THE FOLLOWING
CIRCUMSTANCES:
SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS
• Formation of gametes − Meiosis form gametes that are essential for sexual reproduction.
• Genetic information − Meiosis switches on the genetic information for the development of
gametes.
• Maintenance of chromosome number − Meiosis maintains the fixed number of
chromosomes in sexually reproducing organisms.
• Assortment of chromosomes − In meiosis paternal and maternal chromosomes assort
independently. It causes reshuffling of chromosomes and the traits controlled by them.
• Crossing over − It introduces new combination of traits or variations.
CANCER
• Cancer is basically a disease of uncontrolled cell
division. Its development and progression are
usually linked to a series of changes in the activity
of cell cycle regulators. For example, inhibitors of
the cell cycle keep cells from dividing when
conditions aren’t right, so too little activity of
these inhibitors can promote cancer. Similarly,
positive regulators of cell division can lead to
cancer if they are too active. In most cases, these
changes in activity are due to mutations in the
genes that encode cell cycle regulator proteins.
 CANCER
• Cancer cells are cells gone wrong — in other words,
they no longer respond to many of the signals that
control cellular growth and death. Cancer cells
originate within tissues and, as they grow and divide,
they diverge ever further from normalcy. Over time,
these cells become increasingly resistant to the
controls that maintain normal tissue — and as a result,
they divide more rapidly than their progenitors and
become less dependent on signals from other cells.
Cancer cells even evade programmed cell death,
despite the fact that their multiple abnormalities
would normally make them prime targets for
apoptosis. In the late stages of cancer, cells break
through normal tissue boundaries and metastasize
(spread) to new sites in the body.
CANCER
• DNA, sometimes called a genetic blueprint, contains
the hereditary material in nearly all organisms. The
improper copying of DNA produces two types of
errors, or mutations. Silent mutations have no impact
on the DNA sequence, but missense mutations, which
alter amino acid sequences, often impact the
associated function. Missense mutations can multiply
over time, leading to cell cycle disruption and the
formation of tumors, which are the product of
runaway cell reproduction. Cancer occurs when
mutated cells ignore or override the normal
"checkpoints" regulating mitosis and begin to
reproduce uncontrollably.
CANCER
• The process of mitosis generates identical daughter
cells by arranging chromosomes into two equal
groups. When the process occurs normally,
chromosomes attach to string-like spindles and begin
to move to the middle of each daughter cell. If
chromosomes fail to attach to these spindles, however,
a daughter cell might have an extra copy of a
chromosome after the cell divides, or it might be
missing one. Scientists refer to the condition whereby
cells have an incorrect number of chromosome as
aneuploidy. Down syndrome, which is characterized by
specific facial features and higher susceptibility to
certain diseases like Alzheimer's and leukemia, is one
disorder caused by the presence of an extra
chromosome.