The Living World

Unit-3

Dr. Ch. Vinod

Faculty of Biological Sciences

KIIT University
What is a
Chromosome?
• Chromosome is the highly
condensed form of DNA
• Wrapped into nucleosomes
• Wrapped into chromatin fiber
• Condensed during metaphase
into the familiar shape
• Humans have 22 autosomal
pairs
• And one pair of sex
chromosomes
Chromosome Parts:
• p arm – the smaller of the two arms
• p stands for petite
• q arm – the longer of the two arms
• Bands are numbered from centromere outward

p q
Chromosome Types:
1. Telocentric – no p arm; centromere is on end
2. Acrocentric – very small p arm; centromere is very
near end
3. Submetacentric – p arm just a little smaller than q
arm; centromere in middle
4. Metacentric – p and q arms are exactly the same
length; centromere in exact middle of chromosome
Chromosome Types:
 Functions of chromosomes
• Chromosomes contain genes and all the hereditary information is located in the genes.

• Chromosomes control the synthesis of structural proteins and thus help in cell division and growth

• They control cellular differentiation

• By directing the synthesis of particular enzymes, chromosomes control cell metabolism

• Chromosomes form link between off springs and parents.

• Some chromosomes called as sex chromosomes determine the sex of the individuals

• Through the process of crossing-over, chromosomes introduce variations

• Mutations are produced due to changes in gene chemistry.

 CELL REPRODUCTION
• Cell Division: process by which a cell divides to form two
new cells (daughter cells)
• Three types of cell division, or cell reproduction
• Prokaryotes (bacteria)
• Binary fission divides forming two new identical cells

• Eukaryotes
• Mitosis
• Cell or organism growth
• Replacement or repair of damaged cells
• Meiosis
• formation of sex cells, or gametes
 PROKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION

• Binary fission
1: DNA Replication - DNA is copied,
resulting in 2 identical chromosomes
2: Chromosome Segregation - 2
chromosomes separate, move towards ends
(poles) of cell
3: Cytokinesis - cytoplasm divides, forming 2
cells

• Each new daughter cell is genetically identical

to parent cell
 DNA replication
New strand synthesis always in the 5’-3’ direction
 Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
Like prokaryotic cell cycle, in that…
– Cell grows.

– DNA is replicated.

- Mitotic cell division produces daughter

cell identical to the parent.

Different from prokaryotic

cell cycle, in that…

– Eukaryotic cells have more DNA on many linear chromosomes.

– The timing of replication and cell division is highly regulated.

 CHROMOSOME
It is a combination of two words, i.e., “Chroma”-means ‘colour’ and
“Somes”-means ‘body’.
So the coloured thread like bodies present in the nucleoplasm are known as
CHROMOSOMES.
• The number of chromosomes per organism is always a definite number, Which is
said as Diploid (2n) no., but gametes, sperms, ova etc. carry Haploid (n) number.
Some examples are given below. Chemically the chromosomes are
Name of the organism Diploid No (2n) made of proteins and nucleic
Human beings 46 acids.
Onions 16 PROTEINS It is mainly Protamines, Histones
and smaller amount of acidic proteins.
Cat 38
NUCLEIC ACIDS : De-oxy ribose Nucleic Acids
Corn 20 (DNA).
 Structure of Nucleosomes
Nucleosomes consist of 147 bp of DNA wrapped in almost two turns around the outside of an octamer of histone
proteins. In most nucleosomes, the octamer has a stoichiometry of H2A2H2B2H32H42. Histones are the most
abundant DNA-binding proteins in eukaryotic cells. The sequences of the 4 histones that make up the octamer are
highly conserved across all organisms, indicating their functions were optimized early in evolution. Histones have a
large number of basic amino acids and bind to DNA mostly by salt-bridge interactions to phosphates in the DNA
backbone. Another histone, H1, binds to the linker DNA between nucleosomes. Linker DNA is 10-90 bp in length
depending upon the organism.
 Structure of 30-nm Chromatin Fibers
In 30-nm fibers, nucleosomes
bind to one another in a
double helical arrangement .

Histone H1 molecules bind to

linker DNA between
nucleosomes and help
stabilize the 30-nm fiber.
THE CELL CYCLE

G1 phase

M phase
S phase

G2 phase
 CELL CYCLE-INTERPHASE
• Interphase: period of growth and DNA replication between
cell divisions
• Three phases:
• G1 Phase
• cell increases in size
• S Phase
• Replication of chromosomes
• Now two strands called sister chromatids joined by a centromere
• G2 Phase
• organelles double
• new cytoplasm forms
• All other structures needed for mitosis form
CELL CYCLE-INTERPHASE
 CELL CYCLE-Prophase

1. chromosomes visible (sister

chromatids)

2. centrioles migrate to the poles

(only in animals)

3. nuclear membrane disappears

4. spindle forms
 CELL CYCLE-Metaphase

centriole
Chromosomes align along equator of s chromosom
the cell, with one kinetochore facing
es
each pole spindle
fibers
 CELL CYCLE - Anaphase

•Centromeres divide

•Spindle fibers pull one set

of chromosomes to each
pole

•Precise alignment is critical

to division
 CELL CYCLE - Telophase
•Nuclear envelope form
around chromosomes
•Chromosomes uncoil
•Cytokinesis
•animals - pinching of
plasma membrane
•plants- elongates and the
cell plate forms (future
cellwall and cell
membrane)
 CELL CYCLE - Cytokinesis
Occurs at end of Mitosis
--division of the
cytoplasm to form 2
new daughter cells
--organelles are divided

-Daughter cells are

genetically identical Cells return to interphase
CELL CYCLE - Checkpoints
 Meiosis
A division of the nucleus that reduces chromosome
number by half.

•Important in sexual reproduction

•Involves combining the genetic information of one

parent with that of the the other parent to produce a
genetically distinct individual
Terminology

• Diploid - two sets of chromosomes (2n), in humans 23 pairs or 46 total

• Haploid - one set of chromosomes (n) - gametes or sex cells, in
humans 23 chromosomes

Chromosome Pairing
• Homologous pair
• each chromosome in pair are identical to the other ( carry genes for same trait)
• only one pair differs - sex chromosomes X or Y
 Phases of Meiosis

•A diploid cell replicates

its chromosomes

•Two stages of meiosis

•Meiosis I and
Meiosis II

•Only 1 replication
 Meiosis-II
•Daughter cells undergo a second division;
much like mitosis
•NO ADDITIONAL REPLICATION OCCURS
 Mitosis vs. Meiosis

• 1n
• 2n
• Daughter cells different from
• Clone parent cell and from each other.

• Same genetic • Daughter cells have ½ the number

information in of chromosomes as somatic cell.
parent cell and
daughter cell. • Shuffling the genes
Thank You