Cell Division

Mitosis
Meiosis
 Genes and Proteins
• Proteins do the work of the cell: growth, maintenance,
response to the environment, reproduction, etc.
• Proteins are chains of amino acids. The sequence of
amino acids in each protein is coded in the DNA as a
specific sequence of A, C, G and T bases: a gene.
• Each gene codes for a different protein.

• Key points:
– All cells within an organism have the same genes.
– What makes cells different from each other is that different
genes are turned on and turned off in different cells.

• The DNA must be copied and then divided exactly so

that each cell gets an identical copy.
Mitosis (PMAT)
• Cells divide to make more cells. While
all the other organelles can be
randomly separated into the daughter
cells, the chromosomes must be
precisely divided so that each
daughter cell gets exactly the same
DNA.

• Mitosis is normal cell division, which

goes on throughout life in all parts of
the body. Meiosis is the special cell
division that creates the sperm and
eggs, the gametes. We will discuss
meiosis separately.
• Mitosis and meiosis occur in
eukaryotes. Prokaryotes use a
different method—”fission” to divide.

• Humans have 46 chromosomes, 23

from each parent. Every cell has the
same 46 chromosomes Each species
has a characteristic number of
chromosomes: corn has 20, house
flies have 10, chimpanzees have 48.
 More Chromosomes
• Chromosomes exist in 2 different
states, before and after they
replicate their DNA. Before
replication, chromosomes have
one chromatid. After replication,
chromosomes have 2 sister
chromatids, held together at the
centromere. Each chromatid is
one piece of DNA with its
supporting proteins.
• In mitosis, the two chromatids of
each chromosome separate, with
each chromatid going into a
daughter cell.
• Remember that diploid cells have
two copies of each chromosome,
one from each parent. These
pairs of chromosomes are NOT
attached together.
 Cell Cycle Gap 1

• Some cells divide constantly: cells in the embryo,

skin cells, gut lining cells, etc. Other cells divide
rarely or never: only to replace themselves. Mitosis Synthe
• Actively dividing cells go through a cycle of events /Meiosi sis
that results in mitosis. Most of the cycle was called
“interphase” by the microscopists who first studied s DNA
cell division. During interphase the cell increases in
size, but the chromosomes are invisible. Gap 2
• The 3 stages of interphase are called G1, S, and G2.

• The S phase (“Synthesis”) is the time when the DNA

is replicated, when the chromosome goes from
having one chromatid to having 2 chromatids held
together at the centromere.
• G1 (“Gap”) is the period between mitosis and S,
when each chromosome has 1 chromatid. Cells
spend most of their time in G1: it is the time when the
cell grows and performs its normal function. Control
of cell division occurs in G1: a cell that isn’t destined
to divide stays in G1, while a cell that is to divide
enters the S phase.
• G2 is the period between S and mitosis. The
chromosome have 2 chromatids, and the cell is
getting ready to divide.
 Machinery of Mitosis
• The chromosomes are pulled
apart by the spindle, which is
made of microtubules. The
spindle fibers are attached to each
centromere (which is part of the
chromosome), and anchored on
the other end to a centrosome
(which is the organizing center for
the spindle).
• There are 2 centrosomes, one at
each end of the spindle. The
chromosomes are lined up
between the poles of the spindle.
• When the spindle fibers contract,
the chromosomes are pulled to
the opposing poles.
• The cell then divides to separate
the two poles.
• Stages of mitosis: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, telophase.
 Prophase
• In prophase, the cell begins the process
of division.
• 1. The chromosomes condense. The
proteins attached to the DNA cause the
chromosomes to go from long thin
structures to short fat one, which makes
them easier to pull apart.
• 2. The nuclear envelope disappears.
The double membrane that surround the
nucleus dissolves into a collection of
small vesicles, freeing the chromosomes
to use the whole cell for division
• 3. The centrosomes move to opposite
poles. During interphase, the pair of
centrosomes were together just outside
the nucleus. In prophase they separate
and move to opposite ends of the cell.
• 4. The spindle starts to form, growing
out of the centrosomes towards the
chromosomes.
 Metaphase
• Metaphase is a short
resting period where the
chromosomes are lined
up on the equator of the
cell, with the centrosomes
at opposite ends and the
spindle fibers attached to
the centromeres.
Everything is aligned for
the rest of the division
process to occur.
 Anaphase
• In anaphase, the
centromeres divide

• Then the spindle fibers

contract, and the
chromosomes are pulled
to opposite poles,
towards the centrosomes.
 Telophase
• In telophase the cell
actually divides.
• The chromosomes are at
the poles of the spindle.
• The spindle disintegrates
• The nuclear envelope re-
forms around the two sets
of chromosomes.
• The cytoplasm is divided
into 2 separate cells, the
process of cytokinesis.
 Cytokinesis
• The organelles (other than the
chromosomes) get divided up into the
2 daughter cells passively: they go
with whichever cell they find
themselves in.

• Plant and animal cells divide the

cytoplasm in different ways.

• In plant cells, a new cell wall made of

cellulose forms between the 2 new
nuclei, about where the chromosomes
lined up in metaphase. Cell
membranes form along the surfaces of
this wall. When the new wall joins with
the existing side wall, the 2 cells have
become separate.

• In animal cells, a ring of actin fibers

(microfilaments are composed of actin)
forms around the cell equator and
contacts, pinching the cell in half.
 Summary of Mitosis
Prophase:
• Chromosomes condense
• Nuclear envelope disappears
• centrosomes move to opposite sides of the cell
• Spindle forms and attaches to centromeres on the chromosomes

Metaphase
• Chromosomes lined up on equator of spindle
• centrosomes at opposite ends of cell

Anaphase
• Centromeres divide

• Chromosomes pulled to opposite poles by the spindle

Telophase
• Chromosomes de-condense
• Nuclear envelope reappears
• Cytokinesis: the cytoplasm is divided into 2 cells
 Cancer
• Cancer is a disease of
uncontrolled cell division.

• It starts with a single cell that

loses its control mechanisms
due to a genetic mutation.

• That cell starts dividing without

limit, and eventually kills the
host.
 Normal vs. Cancer Cells
• Normal cells are controlled by several factors.
– Normal cells stay in the G1 stage of the cell cycle until they are
given a specific signal to enter the S phase, in which the DNA
replicates and the cell prepares for division. Cancer cells enter the
S phase without waiting for a signal.

– Normal cells are mortal.

• This means that they can divide about 50 times and then they
lose the ability to divide, and eventually die. This “clock” gets
re-set during the formation of the gametes. Cancer cells
escape this process of mortality: they are immortal and can
divide endlessly.

– Normal cells that suffer significant chromosome damage destroy

themselves due to the action of a gene called “p53”. Cancer cells
either lose the p53 gene or ignore its message and fail to kill
themselves.
 Overview: Hereditary Similarity and Variation

• Living organisms are distinguished by their

ability to reproduce their own kind
• Heredity is the transmission of traits from
one generation to the next
• Variation shows that offspring differ in
appearance from parents and siblings
• Genetics is the scientific study of heredity
and variation
 Offspring acquire genes from parents by
inheriting chromosomes
• In a literal sense, children do not inherit
particular physical traits from their parents
• It is genes that are actually inherited
 Inheritance of Genes
• Genes are the units of heredity
• Genes are segments of DNA
• Each gene has a specific locus on a certain
chromosome
• One set of chromosomes is inherited from
each parent
• Reproductive cells called gametes (sperms
and eggs) unite, passing genes to the next
generation
 Comparison of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

• In asexual reproduction, one parent

produces genetically identical offspring by
mitosis
• In sexual reproduction, two parents give rise
to offspring that have unique combinations
of genes inherited from the two parents
LE 13-2

Parent
Bud

0.5 mm
Fertilization and meiosis alternate
in sexual life cycles
• A life cycle is the generation-to-generation
sequence of stages in the reproductive
history of an organism
 Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells

• Each human somatic cell (any cell other

than a gamete) has 46 chromosomes
arranged in pairs
• A karyotype is an ordered display of the
pairs of chromosomes from a cell
• The two chromosomes in each pair are
called homologous chromosomes, or
homologues
• Both chromosomes in a pair carry genes
controlling the same inherited characteristics
 LE 13-3
Pair of homologous 5 µm
chromosomes

Centromere

Sister
chromatids
• The sex chromosomes are called X and Y
• Human females have a homologous pair of
X chromosomes (XX)
• Human males have one X and one Y
chromosome
• The 22 pairs of chromosomes that do not
determine sex are called autosomes (1-22)
• Each pair of homologous chromosomes
includes one chromosome from each
parent
• The 46 chromosomes in a human somatic
cell are two sets of 23: one from the mother
and one from the father
• The number of chromosomes in a single set
is represented by n
• A cell with two sets is called diploid (2n)
• For humans, the diploid number is 46 (2n =
46)
• In a cell in which DNA synthesis has
occurred, each chromosome is replicated
• Each replicated chromosome consists of
two identical sister chromatids
 LE 13-4

Key
2n = 6
Maternal set of
chromosomes (n = 3) Where n = 3
2n = 6
Paternal set of
chromosomes (n = 3)

Two sister chromatids

of one replicated
chromosomes
Centromere

Two nonsister
Pair of homologous
chromatids in
chromosomes
a homologous pair
(one from each set)
• Gametes are haploid cells, containing only
one set of chromosomes
• For humans, the haploid number is 23 (n =
23)
• Each set of 23 consists of 22 autosomes
and a single sex chromosome
• In an unfertilized egg (ovum), the sex
chromosome is X
• In a sperm cell, the sex chromosome may
be either X or Y
 Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the Human Life
Cycle
• At sexual maturity, the ovaries and testes
produce haploid gametes
• Gametes are the only types of human cells
produced by meiosis, rather than mitosis
• Meiosis results in one set of chromosomes
in each gamete
• Fertilization, the fusing of gametes, restores
the diploid condition, forming a zygote
• The diploid zygote develops into an adult
LE 13-5
Key
Haploid gametes (n = 23)
Haploid (n)
Ovum (n)
Diploid (2n)

Sperm
cell (n)

MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION

Ovary Testis

Diploid
zygote
(2n = 46)

Mitosis and
development

Multicellular diploid
adults (2n = 46)
The Variety of Sexual Life Cycles
• The alternation of meiosis and fertilization is
common to all organisms that reproduce
sexually
• The three main types of sexual life cycles
differ in the timing of meiosis and fertilization
• In animals, meiosis produces gametes,
which undergo no further cell division before
fertilization
• Gametes are the only haploid cells in
animals
• Gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote that
divides by mitosis to develop into a
multicellular organism
 LE 13-6

Key
Haploid
Diploid
Haploid multicellular Haploid multicellular
Gametes organism (gametophyte) organism
n n
Mitosis n Mitosis Mitosis n Mitosis
n
n n n
n n
Spores n n
MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION
Gametes Gametes n
MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION

MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION
2n Zygote 2n
2n
2n
Diploid Zygote 2n
Diploid Mitosis multicellular Mitosis
multicellular organism Zygote
organism (sporophyte)

Animals Plants and some algae Most fungi and some protists
 Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome
sets from diploid to haploid
• Like mitosis, meiosis is preceded by the
replication of chromosomes
• Meiosis takes place in two sets of cell
divisions, called meiosis I and meiosis II
• The two cell divisions result in four daughter
cells, rather than the two daughter cells in
mitosis
• Each daughter cell has only half as many
chromosomes as the parent cell
 The Stages of Meiosis
• In the first cell division (meiosis I),
homologous chromosomes separate
• Meiosis I results in two haploid daughter
cells with replicated chromosomes
• In the second cell division (meiosis II), sister
chromatids separate
• Meiosis II results in four haploid daughter
cells with unreplicated chromosomes
LE 13-7
Interphase

Homologous pair
of chromosomes
in diploid parent cell

Chromosomes
replicate

Homologous pair of replicated chromosomes

Sister
chromatids Diploid cell with
replicated
chromosomes

Meiosis I

Homologous
chromosomes
separate

Haploid cells with

replicated chromosomes

Meiosis II

Sister chromatids
separate

Haploid cells with unreplicated chromosomes

• Meiosis I is preceded by interphase, in
which chromosomes are replicated to form
sister chromatids
• The sister chromatids are genetically
identical and joined at the centromere
• The single centrosome replicates, forming
two centrosomes
LE 13-8aa

INTERPHASE

MEIOSIS I: Separates homologous chromosomes

METAPHASE I ANAPHASE I

Centrosomes
(with centriole pairs)

Nuclear
envelope
Chromatin

Chromosomes duplicate
• Division in meiosis I occurs in four phases:
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
 Prophase I
• Prophase I typically occupies more
than 90% of the time required for
meiosis
• Chromosomes begin to condense
• In synapsis, homologous
chromosomes loosely pair up,
aligned gene by gene
• In crossing over, nonsister
chromatids exchange DNA
segments
• Each pair of chromosomes forms a
tetrad, a group of four chromatids
• Each tetrad usually has one or
more chiasmata, X-shaped
regions where crossing over
 Metaphase I
• At metaphase I, tetrads line up
at the metaphase plate, with
one chromosome facing each
pole
• Microtubules from one pole
are attached to the
kinetochore of one
chromosome of each tetrad
• Microtubules from the other
pole are attached to the
kinetochore of the other
chromosome
 Anaphase I
• In anaphase I, pairs of
homologous chromosomes
separate

• One chromosome moves

toward each pole, guided
by the spindle apparatus

• Sister chromatids remain

attached at the centromere
and move as one unit
toward the pole
 Telophase I and Cytokinesis
• In the beginning of telophase I, each half of
the cell has a haploid set of chromosomes;
each chromosome still consists of two sister
chromatids

• Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously,

forming two haploid daughter cells

• In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms; in

plant cells, a cell plate forms

• No chromosome replication occurs between

the end of meiosis I and the beginning of
meiosis II because the chromosomes are
already replicated
 Prophase II
• Meiosis II is very similar to
mitosis

• In prophase II, a spindle

apparatus forms

• In late prophase II (not

shown in the art),
chromosomes (each still
composed of two
chromatids) move toward
the metaphase plate
LE 13-8b

MEIOSIS II: Separates sister chromatids

TELOPHASE I AND TELOPHASE II AND
PROPHASE II METAPHASE II ANAPHASE II
CYTOKINESIS CYTOKINESIS

Cleavage Haploid daughter cells

furrow Sister chromatids forming
separate

Two haploid cells

form; chromosomes During another round of cell division, the sister chromatids finally separate;
are still double four haploid daughter cells result, containing single chromosomes
 Metaphase II
• At metaphase II, the sister
chromatids are arranged at
the metaphase plate

• Because of crossing over in

meiosis I, the two sister
chromatids of each
chromosome are no longer
genetically identical

• The kinetochores of sister

chromatids attach to
microtubules extending from
opposite poles
 Anaphase II
• At anaphase II, the
sister chromatids
separate

• The sister chromatids

of each chromosome
now move as two
newly individual
chromosomes toward
opposite poles
 Telophase II and Cytokinesis
• In telophase II, the
chromosomes arrive at
opposite poles
• Nuclei form, and the
chromosomes begin
decondensing
• Cytokinesis separates the
cytoplasm
• At the end of meiosis, there are
four daughter cells, each with a
haploid set of unreplicated
chromosomes
• Each daughter cell is
genetically distinct from the
others and from the parent cell
 A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

• Mitosis conserves the number of chromosome

sets, producing cells that are genetically identical
to the parent cell

• Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes sets

from two (diploid) to one (haploid), producing cells
that differ genetically from each other and from the
parent cell

• The mechanism for separating sister chromatids is

virtually identical in meiosis II and mitosis
• Three events are unique to meiosis, and all three
occur in meiosis l:

– Synapsis and crossing over in prophase I: Homologous

chromosomes physically connect and exchange genetic
information

– At the metaphase plate, there are paired homologous

chromosomes (tetrads), instead of individual replicated
chromosomes

– At anaphase I, it is homologous chromosomes, instead

of sister chromatids, that separate and are carried to
opposite poles of the cell
 Origins of Genetic Variation Among Offspring

• The behavior of chromosomes during

meiosis and fertilization is responsible for
most of the variation that arises in each
generation
• Three mechanisms contribute to genetic
variation:
– Independent assortment of chromosomes
– Crossing over
– Random fertilization
Significance of Genetic Variation Within Populations

• Natural selection results in accumulation of

genetic variations favored by the
environment

• Sexual reproduction contributes to the

genetic variation in a population, which
ultimately results from mutations
LE 13-9
MITOSIS MEIOSIS

Parent cell Chiasma (site of

MEIOSIS I
(before chromosome replication) crossing over)

Propase Prophase I
Chromosome Chromosome
replication replication Tetrad formed by
Duplicated chromosome synapsis of homologous
2n = 6
(two sister chromatids) chromosomes

Chromosomes Tetrads
Metaphase positioned at the positioned at the Metaphase I
metaphase plate metaphase plate

Anaphase Sister chromatids Homologues Anaphase I

Telophase separate during separate Telophase I
anaphase during
Haploid
anaphase I;
n=3
sister
chromatids
Daughter
remain together
cells of
meiosis I

2n 2n MEIOSIS II
Daughter cells
of mitosis
n n n n
Daughter cells of meiosis II

Sister chromatids separate during anaphase II

Property Mitosis Meiosis

DNA During During

replication interphase interphase
Divisions One Two

Synapsis and Do not occur Form tetrads in

crossing over prophase I
Daughter cells, Two diploid, Four haploid,
genetic identical to different from
composition parent cell parent cell and
each other
Role in animal Produces cells Produces
body for growth and gametes
tissue repair