General Biology – Cell Division

Key Roles of Cell Division  Reproductive cells – or gametes

(sperm and egg cells)
 The cell division process is an
integral part of the cell cycle, the
life of a cell from the time it is
first formed during division into
two daughter cells. Division of Chromosomes During
 Passing of genetic material to Eukaryotic Cell Division
cellular offspring is a crucial
function of cell division.
Most cell division = identical daughter
cells
Cellular Organization of the Genetic
Material
 A cell’s endowment of DNA, its
genetic information, is called its
genome.
 Prokaryotic genome is often a
single DNA molecule, eukaryotic
genomes usually consist of a Definition of Terms:
number of DNA molecules. Sister Chromatids - The sister
- Therefore, prokaryotic- single, chromatids are pairs of identical copies
eukaryotic- multiple. of DNA joined at a point called the
 A typical human cell, has about 2 centromere.
m of DNA.
 Before division to form 2 Spindle fibers - form a protein structure
identical d cells, all of its DNA that divides the genetic material in a cell.
must be copied and replicated. - necessary to equally divide the
- They must separate to end up chromosomes in a parental cell
with a complete genome. into two daughter cells during
 Chromosomes – package both types of nuclear division:
structures that enables too much mitosis and meiosis.
replication and distribution of so - During mitosis, the spindle
much DNA. fibers are called the mitotic
- Condensed chromatin fibers spindle.
- Needs chromatin
Kinetochore - is a protein complex
 Chromatin - the entire complex of
assembled on the centromeric region of
DNA and proteins that is the
DNA.
building material of
chromosomes. - It provides the major
- Not condensed attachment point for the
- Composed of nucleosomes spindle microtubules during
- Mixture of DNA and protein mitotic or meiotic division to
that form the chromosomes. pull the chromosomes apart.
 Somatic Cells - all body cells
Cohesin- protein complex that connects
except the reproductive cells.
the sister chromatids.
General Biology – Cell Division

- essential for chromosome

segregation in dividing cells.
Visualization of Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
Shogushin – serves as protection of the
cohesion.
- protect sister chromatid
cohesion, thus ensuring
chromosomal stability during
mitosis and meiosis in
eukaryotes.
Microtubules - similarly extend outward
from duplicated centrosomes to form the
mitotic spindle, which is responsible for The mitotic phase alternates with
the separation and distribution of interphase in the cell cycle.
chromosomes to daughter cells.
During the period between one cell
division and the next, it appeared that the
cell was simply growing larger.
Many critical events occur during this
stage in the life of a cell.

Phases of Cell Cycle

 Mitosis is just one part of the cell
cycle. The mitotic (M) phase,
which includes both mitosis and
cytokinesis, is usually the shortest
part of the cell cycle.
 The mitotic phase alternates with
a much longer stage called
interphase, which often accounts
for about 90% of the cell cycle.
General Biology – Cell Division

- Centrosomes are regions in

animal cells that organize the
microtubules of the spindle. -
Each centrosome contains two
centrioles.
- Chromosomes, duplicated
during S phase, cannot be seen
individually
- because they have not yet
condensed
Interphase • During all three sub phases, cell grow
as it copies its chromosomes and
Interphase can be divided into
continues to grow as preparations for cell
subphases:
division, and divides.
G1 phase (“first gap) – Cell grows in
preparation for own replication and
contain intracellular components, such as • The daughter cells may then repeat the
the centrosome undergo replication. cycle.
[(in G1) G0 phase – where non-dividing Mitosis
cells are located.]
- Resting place of useless cells.
- Reserved cells where only
proceeds if needed (eg. Liver
cells).
Continuation of G1 phase:
- This is where the first
checkpoint happens.
S phase (“synthesis”) – phase of DNA
synthesis.
- Replication of DNA occurs. Mitosis is conventionally broken down
into five substages:
G2 phase (“second gap”) – between the
completion of the S phase and the next • Prophase
mitosis (M).
• Prometaphase
- The nucleolus and the nuclear
• Metaphase
envelope are distinct and the
chromosomes are in the form • Anaphase
of threadlike chromatid.
• Telophase
- Period of rapid cell growth
and protein synthesis during Overlapping with the latter stages if
which the cell prepares itself mitosis, cytokinesis completes the
for mitosis. mitotic phase.
- Two centrosomes have formed
The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by
by duplication of a single
a molecular control system.
centrosome.
General Biology – Cell Division

- Some of the microtubules attach to the

kinetochores, becoming “kinetochore
microtubules,” which jerk the
Prophase
chromosomes back and forth.
- Non-kinetochore microtubules
interact with those from the
opposite pole of the spindle.
- These microtubules trap
energy in the developing
spindle.
Metaphase

- The nucleoli disappeared.

- The mitotic spindle begins to form.
It is composed of the centrosomes and
the microtubules that extend from them.
The radial arrays of shorter microtubules
that extend from the centrosomes are
called asters (“stars”), hold the two
centrioles at the two opposite poles.
The centrosomes move away from each - The centrosomes are now at
other, propelled partly by the lengthening opposite poles of the cell.
microtubules between them. - The chromosomes have all
arrived at the metaphase plat, a
Prometaphase
plane that is equidistant
between the spindle’s two
poles. The chromosomes’
centromeres lies at the
metaphase
plate.
- For each chromosome, the
kinetochores of the sister
chromatids are attached to
kinetochore microtubules
- The microtubules extending from each coming from opposite poles.
chromosome can now invade the nuclear
Anaphase
area.
- The chromosomes have become even
more condensed.
- Each of the two chromatids of each
chromosome now has a kinetochore, a
specialized protein structure at the
centromere.
General Biology – Cell Division

• Anaphase is the shortest stage of

mitosis, often lasting only a few minutes.

- Anaphase begins when the

cohesion proteins are cleaved.
This allows the two sister
chromatids of each pair to part
suddenly. Each chromatid thus
becomes a full-fledged
chromosome.
Telophase
Two daughter nuclei form in the cell.
Nuclear envelopes arise from the
fragments of the
parent cell’s nuclear envelope and other
portions of the endomembrane system.
• Nucleoli reappear.
• The chromosomes become less
condensed.
• Any remaining spindle microtubules
are depolymerized.
• Mitosis, the division of one nucleus
into two genetically identical nuclei, is
now complete.
Cytokinesis
• The division of the cytoplasm is usually
well under way by late telophase, so the
two daughter cells appear shortly after The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by
the end of mitosis. a molecular control system.
• In anima cells, cytokinesis involves the - The timing and rate of cell
formation of a cleavage furrow, which division in different parts of a
pinches the cell in two. plant or animal are crucial to
normal growth, development
and maintenance.
- These cell cycle differences
result from regulation at the
molecular level. The
mechanisms of this regulation
are of great interest, not only
to understand the life cycles of
normal cells but also to learn
how cancer cells manage to
escape the usual controls.
General Biology – Cell Division

sequential events of the cell cycle.

• Two types of proteins: protein kinases
and cyclins.

The Cell Cycle Control System

• “The cell cycle is driven by specific
signaling molecules present in the
cytoplasm.”
• The sequential events of the cell cycle
are directed by a distinct cell cycle
control system, a
cyclically operating set of molecules in
the cell that both triggers and coordinates
key
events in the cell cycle.
• The cell cycle is regulated at certain
checkpoints by both internal and external
signals that
stop or restart.
• A checkpoint is a control point in the
cell cycle where stop and go-ahead
signals can
regulate the cycle.
The Cell Cycle Clock: Cyclins and
Cyclin-Dependent Kinases
• Rhythmic fluctuations in the abundance
and activity of cell cycle control
molecules pace
General Biology – Cell Division