ZOOLOGY

AIIMS 2020
Class : XIII (All) BREATHING & EXCHANGE OF GASES NOTES

BREATHING & GASEOUS EXCHANGE

 Breathing/Ventilation- inhalation of atmospheric air(O2 rich) and exhalation of CO2 rich air i.e exchange of O2
from atm. With CO2 produced by cells

 Respiration- breakdown of respiratory fuel to obtain ATP

Respiration Types:
1. Aerobic- use of O2 -C6H12O6+6O2  6CO2+6O2+ATP (36)

2. Anaerobic- no use of O2

-Yeast:

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Glucose  2 PA  2 Ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) + 2 CO2+ 2 ATP

-Human muscle (strenous exercise) /RBC:

Glucose  2 PA  2 Lactic acid+ 2 ATP

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RESPIRATORY ORGANS

Respiratory
organs
General
body
surface
Moist cuticle/ Tracheal N
Gills Lungs
Cutaneous tubes (branchial) (vascularised
(skin) (most
efficient) bags)
SI
Examples Protozoa Earthworm Insects -Aquatic –Amphibia
arthropods
Sponges Frogs -Reptiles
O

– Molluscs
Coelenterate – Birds
– Fishes
 Flatworms Mammals
O

 Ideal Resp. Surface :

ET

• Thin
• Large Surface area
• Highly Vascular
• Always moist

 Human:
1. skin-
• thicker( stratified squamous epithelium)
• Moist,Vascular
• Surface area= 1.5-2.0 sq.mt

2. Lungs (alveoli)-
• Thin (simple squamous epithelium)
• Moist , highly vascular
• Surface area= 80 sq.mt

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 HUMAN RESPIRATORY ORGANS

(1) Respiratory tract.

(2) Lungs
Respiratory tract – A passage by which air enters into lungs
External nostrils  Nasal Chamber  Internal nares  Naso pharynx

Trachea ¬ Larynx ¬ Glottis ¬ Pharynx 


Bronchial Tree

Respiratory Tree(alveolus)

Nasal Chamber

Vestibule Respiratory part Olfactory Part

– Small anterior – Nasal, Maxilla & – At roof of nasal

part Ethmoid bone chamber

– Hair – Chonchae/ – Goblet cells

turbinates (mucus)
– Sebaceous gland
– Air conditioner – Sensory (smell)
– Filtration of Air of body
– Schneidarian
– PSCCGE membrane

– Highly Vascular

Larynx/ Voice box - 9 Cartilages

Anterior Upper Part of Trachea

Thyroid (1) Arytenoid (2) Cuneiform (2)

– Dorsally incomplete – Dorsal Side – Elastic

– Largest – Pyramidal

– C-shaped – Hyaline
Cricoid (1) Carniculate/ Epiglottis (1)
– Hyaline
Santorini (2)
– Below thyroid – Leaf Shaped
– Adam’s apple cartilage – Elastic
in males – Elastic
(vencral, – Signet ring
testosperone) – Cover glottis
– Hyaline during deglutition

Vocal Cords in Larynx

mucus membrane folds

True V.C. False V.C.

– Posterior – No Sound Production

– Lead to sound production – Anterior

by vibrations during
exhalation of air – Provide moisture
to true V.C.

 Greater the tension on vocal cords———higher the pitch of sound

 Trachea :-
 Wind pipe
 10 cm long × 2.5 cm diameter
 extends upto mid thoracic cavity
 Divides at T5 level into 2 primary bronchi
 16-20 ‘C’-shaped incomplete(dorsally)
Cartilagenous (hyaline) rings, prevents from collapse during low air pressure
 Lined by PSCCGE

There are two zones.

(i) Conducting zones (ii) Exchange zone

External nostrils

Vestibules

Nasal Chambers

Internal nares Conducting Zone


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Naso pharynx

Pharynx
 Glottis
Larynx

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
Trachea

Primary Bronchi Note:

N
(2-Rt:shorter,widermore vertical)

Secondary/lobular Bronchi(3-rt , 2-lt) C-Shaped rings-

SI
 trachea upto initial
Bronchial tree Tertiary/Segmental Bronchi(10-R,8-L) bronchioles

Initial Bronchioles
Primary bronchus
O


Terminal Bronchiole enters into lungs

Respiratory Bronchiole
O


Alveolar Duct

ET

Respiratory tree ATRIA Exchange Zone


Alveolar Sac

Alveoli

 Conducting part functions:

Transports atmospheric air to alveoli
Clears air from foreign particles
Humidifies air and bring it to body temperature

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 ALVEOLUS :- – Struct & functional unit

– Simple squamous epithelium

300 million in no.

Penumatocyte - I Penumatocyte - II/

Clara cells
– Simple sq. cells
– Secretes surfactant
– for gas exchange
[Dipalmatoyl Lecithin,
Phospolipid Reduce
surface tension]

S. No. Structure Epithelium type Diameter

1. Trachea PSCCGE 2 cm

2. Bronchi PSCCGE 1.5-0.5

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cm
3. Bronchiole Simple columnar ciliated 2-1.5 mm
upto terminal glandular
bronchiole

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4. Respiratory Simple cuboidal (non-ciliated) 1.5-1 mm
bronchiole
5. Alveolar Simple squamous (non-ciliated) 1 mm

6.
duct
Alveolus Simple squamous (non-ciliated)
N <0.5 mm
SI
 Lungs: 1 pair ,situated in thoracic chamber
( anatomically air-tight chamber)
O

 Thoracic chamber/cage:
Ventral-sternum and ribs
Dorsal- vertebral column and ribs
O

Lateral-ribs
Lower side(posterior)-diaphragm(dome shaped)
Anterior-neck and clavicle
ET

 Lungs covered by Double layered pleura (inner visceral and outer parietal)

 Pleural cavity with pleural fluid (reduce friction on lung surface)

 Pleuritis

 Pleural effusion—difficulty in breathing (dyspnoea)

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 Right lung Left lung

1.larger -smaller

2.Heavier (625 gm) -565 gm

3.Cardiac notch -present

absent
4.3 lobes,2 fissures -2 lobes,1 fissure

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

N
Any change in volume of thoracic cavity will be reflected in lung(pulmonary) cavity.
We cannot directly alter pulmonary volume
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Respiration involves the following steps :-

(i) Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air is drawn in and CO2 rich alveolar air is released
out.
O

(ii) Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across alveolar membrane

(iii) transport of gases by the blood.
(iv) Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.
O

(v) Utilization of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultant release of CO2

 Inspiration : (active process)


ET

Diaphragm(phrenic radial muscle): contraction

becomes flat——————————

Increase in the volume of thoracic chamber ( AP Axis)

 Leads to
Similar increase in the volume of pulmonary cavity
 Causes
Decrease in pressure in the pulmonary cavity(-2to -6 mmHg)
( pressure and volume are inversely proportional)
 Causes
Air enters from atmosphere to the lungs as it moves
From higher pressure to lower pressure

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 External intercostal muscles(11 pairs): contraction :ribs and sternum move upward /outward

Increase in the volume of thoracic cavity(dorso-ventral axis)

 Leads to
Similar Increase in the volume of pulmonary cavity
 Causes
Decrease in the pressure within the pulmonary cavity which is less than the atmospheric pressure
 Causes
Atmospheric air enters into the lungs (inhalation)

Route of air during inspiration :

External nostrils

Nasal cavities

Pharynx

Larynx


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Trachea

Bronchi

Bronchioles

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
Alveoli



Expiration(passive process)
N
Diaphragm & Ext intercostal muscle : Relaxation- move to original position

Decrease in the volume of thoracic cavity

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 Leads to
Similar decrease in the volume of pulmonary cavity
 Causes
Increase in the pressure of pulmonary cavity
O

 Causes
Expulsion of air from higher pressure (lungs)
to lower pressure (atmosphere)
O

 Forceful expiration(active)

(i) Internal Intercostal muscles :contraction

ET

Decrease in the volume of thoracic cavity

 Leads to
Similar decrease in the volume of pulmonary cavity
 Causes
Increase in the pressure of pulmonary cavity
 Causes
Expulsion of air from higher pressure (lungs)
to lower pressure (atmosphere)

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(ii) Abdominal Muscles : contraction

Volume of thoracic cavity decreases

 Leads to
Similar decrease in the volume of pulmonary cavity
 Causes
Increase in the pressure of pulmonary cavity
 Causes
Expulsion of air from higher pressure (lungs)
to lower pressure (atmosphere)

Route of air during expiration :

Alveoli

Bronchioles

Bronchi

Trachea


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Larynx

Pharynx

Nasal cavities

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
External nostrils

N
Table : Role of muscles in inspiration and expiration
SI
Sate of Breathing Muscles involved Contraction/ Volume of
Relaxation thoracic
cavity
O

1 (i) Normal (a) Diaphragm Contracts Increases

(b) External intercostal Contract Increases
inspiration muscles
O

2 (i) Normal (a) Diaphragm Relaxes Decreases

(b) External intercostal Relaxes Decreases
expiration
ET

(ii) Forceful (a) Internal intercostal Contract Decreases

muscles
expiration (b) Abdominal muscles Contract Decreases

 The rate of breathing in a normal healthy man is 12-16 times/min

 Normal breathing- Abdominal breathing
 RR is inversely proportional to body size
 Mammals have ‘negative pressure breathing ,
can eat and breathe at same time.Frog(positive pressure)

 An instrument known as ‘ Spirometer’ is used to estimate the volume of air involved in breathing movements
which helps in clinical assessment of pulmonary function.

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1. Tidal Volume(TV) - volume of air inspired or expired during normal respiration
2. Inspiratory Reserve Volume(IRV)-additional volume of air ,a person can inspire by forceful inspiration
3. Expiratory Reserve Volume(ERV)-additional volume of air,a person can expire by forceful expiration
4. Reserve Volume( RV)- volume of air remaining in lungs even after forceful expiration

1. Alveolar Air Volume: reaches alveoli= 350 ml

2. Anatomical dead space/ Dead space volume = 150 ml (30 % of T.V)
3. Minute ventilation = T.V × R.R = 6000 ml
4. Alveolar Ventilation = (T.V- Anat. Dead space) × R.R = 4200 ml

Respiratory Volumes Value

1. Tidal Volume (TV) 500 ml (lowest value)

2. Inspiratory Reserve 2500 ml – 3000 ml

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Volume (IRV)

3. Expiratory Reserve 1000 ml – 1100 ml

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Volume (ERV)

4. Residual Volume (RV) N

1100 ml – 1200 ml
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1. Inspiratory Capacity( IC)- total volume of air a person can inspire after a normal expiration
O

2. Expiratory Capacity( EC)- total volume of air a person can expire after a normal inspiration

3. Functional Residual Capacity( FRC)-volume of air that remains in lungs after normal expiration
O

4. Vital Capacity ( VC)-maximum volume of air a person can breathe in after forceful expiration.

5. Total Lung Capacity( TLC)-Total volume of air accommodated in lungs at end of forceful inspiration
ET

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 Respiratory capacities Formulae

1 Inspiratory capacity (IC) TV + IRV = 3000 – 3500 ml

2 Expiratory capacity (EC) TV + ERV = 1500 – 1600 ml

3 Functional Residual Capacity ERV + RV = 2500 ml

(FRC)

4 Vital Capacity (VC) ERV + TV + IRV or IC + ERV =

3500 – 4500 ml

5 Total Lung Capacity (TLC) RV + ERV + TV + IRV or IC + FRC

= 5800 ml

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 EXCHANGE OF GASES :- by Simple diffusion

 Factors that affect the rate of diffusion:

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1. Solubility of gases-
Higher solubility—faster diffusion rate
(CO2 20-25 Times more soluble than O2)

2. N
Partial Pressure Gradient of gases across diffusion surface:
SI
O
O
ET

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 IA
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N
SI
3. Thickness of Diffusion Membrane :
less thick-faster diffusion.
Alveolar surface-thickness <1 mm(0.2 mm)
O

1. Thin squamous epithelium of alveoli that lines it.

2. Endothelial lining of alveolar capillaries that surround it (simple squamous)

O

3. Basement substance : In between thin squamous epithelium of alveoli and endothelium of alveolar capillaries
basement substance is present.
ET

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 TRANSPORT OF O2

 100 ml blood (oxy.) – 20 ml of O2

 100 ml blood (oxy.) – 15 gm Hb
 1 gm Hb – 1.34 ml O2
 97% – attached with Hb inside RBC
 03% – dissolved in plasma
 Binding of oxygen with Hb is primarily related to pO2
 Cooperative binding of O2 with Hb

 Normal condition:
100 ml oxygenated(arterial) blood-20 ml O2
100 ml deoxygenated(venule) blood-14.8 ml O2
O2 delivered to tissue-5 ml (25%)

 Strenous exercise/diseased/increased acidity/reduced pH/increased temp/increased pCO2:

100 ml Deoxy. Blood -5 ml O2
O2 delivered to tissue-15 ml

 OxyHb Dissociation curve:

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Graph between pO2 and %saturation of Hb with O2
(sigmoid /S– shaped)
p50 Value=25 mmHg (50% OxyHb) i.e partial pressure at which Hb saturation is 50%

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N
SI
O
O
ET

 Factors Affecting OxyHb Dissociation Curve (sigmoid /S– shaped) :-

1. PCO2

2. Temp. of body

3. H+ conc. In blood (Acidity)

 Note: p50 Value=25 mmHg (50% oxyHb) i.e partial pressure at which Hb saturation is 50%

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 BOHR’S EFFECT :-
  CO2 conc.  more dissociation of O2 from OxyHb (reduced affinity between Hb and O2)
 Shifts curve towards Right side
 at tissue level
 related with O2 transport

Shift to Right :-
 In tissue
 During severe exercise
 Indicates  O2 affinity with Hb
 Indicates more dissociation of O2 from Hb
(a)  PO2
(b)  PCO2 – Bohr’s Effect
(c)  H+
(d) High Temp
(e)  2, 3 DPG

 CADET
 P50 value 

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 Shift to left:

1) Opposite to CADET conditions

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2) Fetal Hb (Hb-F)- higher affinity for oxygen (30%) than maternal Hb

3) Myoglobin-iron containing respiratory pigment in muscle , one Fe2+——carry one O2 molecule-———


Hyperbolic curve.

Transport of CO2
N
SI
1. In dissolved form through plasma( 7%)
2. As bicarbonate ions (70%) by plasma
Carbonic anhydrase Carbonicanhydrase
CO 2 + H 2 O   H 2 CO 3   H+ + HCO 3-
Carbonicacid Hydrogen ion Bicarbonate ion
O

HCO -3 + H + 
Carbonic
anhydrase
Carbonic
 H 2CO 3 
anhydrase
 H 2 O + CO 2
O

3. By RBCs as Carbaminohaemoglobin (HbCO2)- (23%)-attach to amino grp.of Hb

Hb + CO2 
 HbCO2
Haemoglobin Carbon Carbamino-
ET

(RBCs) dioxide haemoglobin

 Factors that affect the binding of CO2 with Hb

 In tissues : High pCO2 and low pO2 in tissues are responsible for binding more CO2 with Hb.
Hb + CO2  HbCO2

 In alveoli : Low pCO2 and high pO2 in alveoli are responsible for dissolution of CO2 from carbaminohaemoglobin.
HbCO2  Hb + CO2

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 Haldane Effect :-
 OxyHb act as strong acid As more Oxy Hb formed, more H+ ions released, makes blood acidic.
In Lungs
H + + HCO 3 –   H 2 CO 3  H 2O + CO 2 
 More Oxy Hb formed, more CO2 exhaled
 Related to CO2 transport
 At alveolar level

 Cl– shift/Hamburger phenomenon :-

 HCO3– released comes into plasma from RBC & Cl– move from plasma into RBC.

Regulation of Breathing

Normal breathing is Involuntary & abdominal

Pregnancy : Thoracic

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12 - 16 min
Neural Control 1 cycle = 5 sec. Chemical Control
I = 2 sec.
E = 3 sec.
Central Peripheral

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Medullary Centre Pontine Centre
(Resp. Rhythm Centre) – Moderates In Medulla (Carotid & Aortic
– Main breathing centre function of RRC bodies)
– Maintains Normal rhythm
rate of breathing
Apneustic
N Pneumotaxis Centre
SI
Centre
DRC VRC “Switch of point of Inspiration”
(Inspiratory group) (Expiratory group)
O

Reduce time of Inspiration

Controls normal No Role in Normal
breathing, breathing (passive)
RR Increase
O

Initiates During forced breathing,

Inspiration Controls both I & E
ET

 Hering Bruers reflex-

 Protective reflex to prevent lung overinflation

 Stretch/baroreceptor present in bronchi and bronchioles——stimulated by lung overinflation—————
stimulate pontine centre through vagus nerve———reduce inspiration duration

1. Eupnoea-normal breathing

2. Hypopnoea / Bradypnoea -RR below normal

3. Hyperpnoea / Tachypnoea-RR above normal

4. Dyspnoea-difficult painful breathing

5. Orthopnoea- difficult breathing in horizontal position

6. Apnoea- temporary caesation of breathing

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7. Hypoxia-low O2 conc. In tissue cells

8. Hypercapnia-high CO2 conc .in tissue cells

 Hypoxic disorders:
1 .Mountain sickness/altitude sickness/hypoxic hypoxia-
Due to low atmospheric pressure at high altitude
So , body doesn’t get enough oxygen
Symptoms- nausea , fatigue , heart palpitations , breathlessness, headache
Acclimitization : body compensates low oxygen availibility by-

1. Increasing RBC production (erythropoeisis)

2. Increasing breathing rate

2. Anaemic hypoxia-normal pO2 , Decreased RBC/Hb (anaemia)

3. Obstructive Hypoxia-normal pO2 ,normal RBC count , normal Hb

4. Histotoxic hypoxia-normal pO2,RBC count , Hb

Due to cyanide poisoning , tissue unable to utilize oxygen

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 CO Poisoning:

 CO 210 times more affinity for Hb , than O2

(0.7 mmHg i.e. 1% conc. Is lethal)

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 CarboxyHb (stable compound) – cherry red colour blood


Cause Asphyxia/suffocation-hypoxia f/b hypercapnia
N
Decompression sickness/Caissons disease/Bends disease/ Dysbarrism/ Divers disease:
SI
Nitrogen dissolves in body fluids (lipid) at higher pressure in sea
While diver ascends abruptly——nitrogen comes out in form of bubbles——obstruct blood vessels
Symptoms-severe pain in legs , headache , dizziness
O

Disorders of Respiratory System

O

1. Asthma-
 Allergic disease
 Inflammation of bronchi and bronchioles
 Spasm of smooth muscles present in wall
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 Difficulty in breathing (wheezing)

2. Emphysema-
 chronic disorder due to cigrette smoking
 Alveolar walls damaged—respiratory surface decreased
 Alveolar sacs remain filled with air even after expiration

3. Occupational Respiratory Disorders-

 Long exposure to dust—inflammation——-fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous tissue)——-lung damage

Silicosis
 Asbestosis
Byssinosis / brown lung disease (cotton dust)
Pneumoconiosis/ black lung disease (coal dust)
Workers should wear protective masks

PAGE # 14
 Mammals have ‘negative pressure breathing , can eat and breathe at same time.

 Frog (positive pressure breathing)

 Lung floatation test :

 An autopsy procedure to determine whether lungs have undergone respiration.

*****

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D
N
SI
O
O
ET

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