 Classification: 5 classes on the basis of shape/position of madreporite and larval

forms.

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Guru Mantra Series

CHORDATA
 All chordates possess notochord, pharyngeal gill slits and dorsal tubular nerve
cord at least in some stages of development.
 The centrum of a vertebra is the part of notochord.
 Spinal cord is the dorsal tubular nerve cord.
 Other general characteristics of chordates are: triploblastic nature; bilateral
symmetry; organ system organization; metamerism; cephalization; endoskeleton;
enterocoelic coelom; closed circulation with specialized respiratory and excretory
organs.
 Classification: Phylum Chordata is divided into 3 sub-phyla on the basis of
future of notochord:
1. Urochordata
 Notochord is present only in the tail of larval stage.
 Body covered by a leathery test or tunic formed of tunicine and hence called
Tunicata.
 Numerous branchial baskets are present..
 These show retrogressive metamorphosis.
 Eg: Herdmania (sea squirt), Salpa, Doliolum, Pyrosoma (It is bioluminescent)
2. Cephalochordata
 Notochord extends up to the tip of the head.
 Tail is present throughout life.
 Eg: Amphioxus (Lancelet), Brachiostama
3. Vertebrata
 Notochord is replaced by vertebral column.
 Brain is protected by a brain box called cranium and hence called Craniata.
 Sub-phylum Vertebrata is divided into 2 sub-divisions on the basis of jaws:
A. Agnatha
 Mouth is not bounded by jaws. So called Agnathans (jawless vertebrates).
 Single class – Cyclostoma
 Presence of circular mouth bounded by suctorial funnel but is jawless.
 Heart is 2-chambered.
 Lateral line sense organs are absent.
 Development includes an ammonoetes larva resembling Amphioxus
in structure and functioning.
 Cranial nerves first appeared in Agnathans.

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  Eg: Petromyzon (Sea-lamprey)
B. Gnathostomata
 Mouth is always bounded by jaws, so called Gnathans (jawed vertebrates)
 Gnathostomata is divided into 2 super classes:
- Super class: Pisces
 Locomotion by fins.
 Exclusively aquatic.
 Respiration by gills.
 Heart is 2 chambered.
 Lateral line organs are found in Osteichthyes.
 Key points to remember on fishes:
 Largest fish: Rhinedon
 Smallest fish: Pigmy goby
 Fastest fish: Sail fish
 Most beautiful fish: Zebra fish
 Most primitive fish: Climatius
 Most poisonous fish: Stone fish
 Most common food fish: Pomphret
 Flying fish: Exocoetus
 Climbing fish: Anabas
 Devonian period is the golden period of fishes.
 Study of skates, rays & sharks is called Torpedology.
 Urinary bladder is absent in fishes.
- Super class: Tetrapoda
 Locomotion by 2 pairs of limbs.
 Primary respiratory organs are lungs.
 Heart is 3 or 4 chambered.
 It is sub-divided into 4 classes on the basis of skin:
a) Class : Amphibia
 These are amphibious animals. No amphibian is marine. Some are
arboreal (eg.Hyla) while some are terrestrial (eg. toad).
 No exoskeleton.
 Teeth are homodont, polyphyodont and acrodont.
 2 pairs of pentadactyl limbs but digits have neither nails nor claws.
 Three chambered heart (2 auricles & 1 ventricle).
 Double circulation in which ventricles pumps mixed blood. RBCs are
oval, biconvex & nucleated.
 Excretory organs are kidneys, which are pronephros in larva and
mesonephros in adults.
 Excretion is generally ureotelic (exception: salamanders are ammonotelic
).

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  These are ectothermic/poikilothermic (cold blooded). So, hibernate
(winter sleep) in winter and aestivate (summer sleep) in summer
months.
 Fertilization may be external (Frog) or internal (Salamander).
 Amphibians evolved during Devonian period and dominated during
carboniferous period.
 Carboniferous period is called age of amphibians.
 It has 3 orders: Apoda,Urodela and Anura.
 Amphibians without tail fall in Anura.
b) Class Reptilia
 Skin is non-glandular except femoral glands in male lizards.
 2 sacral vertebrae in the vertebral column. All vertebrae are procoelous.
 Pentadactyl limbs with nailed and clawed digits.
 Heart is 3 chambered with incompletely divided ventricle. It is 4
chambered in crocodiles.
 Hepatic portal system is well developed but renal portal system is
reduced.
 First appearance of Hypophyseal portal system.
 Uricotelic excretion.
 Presence of copulatory organs in the male eg. hemipenis in lizards and
penis in turtles and crocodiles.
 Shelled and cledoic eggs.
 Reptiles are the first true terrestrial vertebrates .
 It has 3 sub-classes:
Anapsida Parapsida Diapsida
Temporal fossae 1.temporal fossa Two temporal fossa
absent. present present.
Eg: Chelone Extinct. Eg: Lizards,
(Green sea turtle snakes, crocodiles.
/ Soup turtle)
 When lizards are threatened they can break off their tails and escape.
This phenomenon is called Autotomy.
c) Class : Aves
 Skin is dry and non-glandular except Oil / Uropygial / Preening gland
on tail.
 Presence of feathery exoskeleton.
 Fore limbs are generally modified into wings.
 Long bones are pneumatic ; Bone marrow absent.
 Vertebrae are heterocoelous.
 Ribs are double headed with uncinate process.
 2 clavicles are fused to form Forcula which is also known as Wish bone.
.

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  Sound producing organ is syrinx.
 Heart is 4 chambered.
 Kideys are metanephric , Uricotelic excretion
 Urinary bladder is absent.
 Homeothermal / warm blooded.
 When a bird is transferred from 30°c to 10°c, its body temperature is
maintained at original level .
 Study of birds: Ornithology.
 Study of nests: Nidology.
 Aerial mode of animal adaptation is known as Volant.
d) Class : Mammalia
 Hairy quadrupeds (Exoskeleton of hair & locomotion on four limbs).
 2 pairs of pentadactyl limbs with nails/ claws/ hoofs on digits.
 The main features of mammals are presence of mammary glands, oil or
sweat glands on skin, external ear (pinna), diaphragm & viviparity.
 Tectorial membrane is present in ear of mammal.
 Presence of corpus callosum and optic quadrigemina.
 Glisson’s capsules are found in liver of mammal.
 Vertebrae – amphiplatyan.
 Presence of 7 cervical vertebrae (including giraffe).
 Heart is 4 chambered.
 RBCs are biconcave and non-nucleated except in Camel and Llama
where RBC is nucleated.
 Teeth are heterodont, thecodont and diphyodont.
 Metanephric kidneys and ureotelic excretion.
 All mammals are viviparous except Prototherians.
 In viviparous animals, fertilization is internal.
 Mammals are classified into 3 sub-classes:
a) Prototheria b) Allotheria c) Theria
 Theria is further divided into 3 Infra classes:
a) Pantotheria b) Metatheria c) Eutheria
 Most distinguishing feature of eutherian mammals is the presence of
placenta.
 Rodents are characterized by chisel-like incisors. They include rat, mice
& squirrels.
 Lagomorphs include rabbits, hares & guinea pigs.
 The ungulates are categorized as even toed (Arteodactyla) Eg: cow,
buffalo, goat, sheep etc. or odd toed (Perisodactyla) Eg: horse, zebra etc.
 Most primitive placental mammal is Shrew.
 The primates include:
a) Prosimians: Lemurs, Lorises and Tarsiers etc.
b) Simians: such as monkeys, apes and human.

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 i. Monkeys:
* New world monkeys: Spider monkeys
* Old world monkeys: Rhesus monkeys
ii. Apes: Gibbon, orangutan, chimpanzee and gorilla
 Gibbon is the most primitive and gorilla is the most developed ape.
 The characteristic feature of primates is the grasping limb with
opposable thumb.
 Mammalian embryo has parasitic mode of nutrition.
 Tertiary period, Eocene epoch is called the "Age of mammals".

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RABBIT BONES
 Endoskeleton or rabbit is primarily divided into :
 Axial skeleton : consists of skull, vertebral column including ribs.
 Appendicular skeleton : consists of limbs and girdle.
1. Axial skeleton:
 Vertebral formula in rabbit: C7T12 L7S4Cd16
 But in man vertebral formula: C7T12L5S5Cd4
 All vertebra in rabbit are acoelous or amphiplatyon i.e.their centra are flattened
at both surfaces.
 No. of vertebra in rabbit = 46/47.
 No. of cervical vertebra = 7 in all mammals except Seacow and sloths where it is
6.
 Cervical vertebra is characterized by the presence of vertebrarterial canal.
 Atlas ( 1st cervical vertebra ) has large neural arch but lacks centrum.
 Odontoid process is present in Axis vertebrae ( 2nd cervical vertebra)
 The articulation between axis and atlas is a kind of Ball and Socket joint.
 Presence of unpaired Hypapohyses in the anterior lumbars only.
 Sacral vertebra are fused together to form a single structure called the sacrum ;
with this vertebra articulates the pelvic girdle.
 There are 12 to 13 pairs of ribs.
 Each ribs has a bony vertebral portion and a cartilaginous costal or sternal
portion.
 The head of each ribs from 1st – 9th has two projections:
 Capitulum attached to centrum
 Tuberculum attached to transverse process of corresponding thoracic vertebra.
 True ribs (attached directly to the sternum) are first seven pairs.
 False ribs ( in which sternal portions are attached to those of 7th) are 8th and 9th
pair of ribs.
 Floating ribs are last 3 pairs.They have no attachments with sternum at all.
 Sternum consists of 7 bony structures known as sternebrae.
 Sternum has three parts: anterior presternum, middle mesosternum and
posterior metasternum or xiphisternum.
 Xiphisternum bears a terminal expanded flap known as Xiphoid cartilage.
 Skull of rabbit is Tropobasic(inter-orbital septum is absent).
 Jaw suspension is craniostylic because lower jaw is firmly attached to upper jaw.
 Zygomatic arc in rabbit is formed by Jugal, Maxilla and squamosal.

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  Lower jaw consists a single bone on each side known as dentary.
 Lower jaw articulates with glenoid fossa of squamosal.
 Dentary possess coronoid process and angular process.
 Auditory or ear ossicles consists of maleus, Incus and stapes.
 Eustachian tube is an aperture between the tympanic and the peri-otic bone.
 Alisphenoids are wing like bones in skull.
 Skull of rabbit is dicondylic.
 Neck of giraffe is larger due to elongation of cervical vertebrae.
 Caudal vertebra is an anticlinal vertebra.
2. Appendicular skeleton:
 The two halves of pectoral girdle are separate due to the presence of thoracic
ribs.
 Each individual half is called innominate that consists of Supra scapula,
triangular scapula , coracoid and clavicle.
 Glenoid cavity is present in pectoral girdle.
 Clavicle is much reduced in rabbit.
 Pelvic girdle is composed of two halves called Os-innominata which unite
posteriorly by a pubic symphysis and connected anteriorly with the sacrum.
 Pelvic girdle consists of illium, ischium and pubis.
 Pubis is the smallest among them.
 Acetabulum is present in pelvic girdle to which the head of femur fits.
 Between ischium and pubis is present a cavity known as obturator foramen.
 Pubis does not take part in formation of acetabulum due to the presence of
cotyloid bone.
 Deltoid ridge is present in humerus.
 Distal end of humerus has a pulley like trochlea and supratrochlear or olecranon
fossa.
 Ventral side of humerus has a coronoid fossa.
 Olecranon process and deep sigmoid notch are present in ulna
 Ulna is responsible for the formation of elbow.
 Number of carpal bones is 8 in rabbits which are arranged in two rows. But in
Oryctolagus, the number of carpal bones is 9.
 Proximal/1st row : radiale,intermedium and ulnare.
 Distal/2nd row: Trapezium, Trapezoid , Centrale, Magnum, Unciform and
pisiform.
 No. of metacarpal bones is five.
 No. of phallenges is 14.
 Digital formula of forelimb of rabbits is 2,3,3,3,3.
 Femur is the longest and stoutest bone of rabbit.

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  Proximal end of femur bears a rounded head that fits into acetabulum of pelvic
girdle.
 Lesser, greater and third trochanters are present in femur.
 Tibia is a stout and a straight bone while Fibula is a slender bone fused distally
with tibia.
 Distal end of tibia articulates with the tarsal bones.
 Cnemial crest is present in tibia.
 Number of tarsal bones is 6 which are arranged in 3 rows.
 1st row : Astragalus and calcaneum
 2nd row : centrale or navicular bone
 3rd row : mesocuneiform, ectocuneiform ,cuboid
 Number of metatarsal is 5.
 Digital formula of hindlinb of rabbit is 0,3,3,3,3

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Guru Mantra Series

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT IN FROG:

Types of eggs
1. On the basis of amount of yolk:
i. Alecithal: eggs with no yolk
ii. Microlecithal: eggs with very little amount of yolk.Eg:Placental mammals.
iii. Mesolecithal: eggs with moderate amount of yolk. Eg:frogs and lung fishes.
iv. Megalecithal: Eggs with large amount of yolk.Eg:Reptiles and birds.
2. On the basis of distribution of yolk:
i. Homolecithal: yolk distributed evenly Eg:echinoderms, Ascaris
ii. Telolecithal: yolk condensed at one pole.Eg:frog, reptiles and birds
iii. Meiolecithal:yolk strongly concentrated in telolecithal.Eg:reptiles, few bony
fishes,etc.
iv. Centolecithal: Yolk is concentrated in the centre.Eg:insects

Types of Cleavages:
i. Holoblastic: A cleavage furrow divides entire egg.Eg: frog
ii. Equal Holoblastic: produced blastomeres are of equal sizes
iii. Unequal Holoblastic: produced blastomeres are of unequal size ,macromeres are
larger while micromeres are smaller.
iv. Meroblastic: Incomplete division of eggs takes place where cytoplasmic animal
pole divides but yolk vegetal pole remains undivided.

Types of Blastula:
i. Coeloblastula: Blastula consisting of one or many layers of numerous cells
arranged around large blastocoel.Eg:frog
ii. Stereoblastula: Single blastocoels surrounded by densely packed,large size and
small number of cells.Eg: Nereis
iii. Discoblastula: having a discoid cleavage.Eg: birds and reptiles
iv. Superficial blastula: found in insects.

 Aristotle is regarded as the founder of science of embryology.

 Father of modern embryology is Karl Ernst Von Baer.

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  Pedogamy is the sexual reproduction of animal in larval condition.
 Teratology is the study of abnormal embryonic development in animals.
 Fertilization is frog is external talking place in water.
 A grey crescent appears in the equatorial zone geometrically opposite to sperm entrance.
 Grey crescent marks the dorsal side of future embryo.
 Frog's egg is mesolecithal (based on amount of yolk) and telolecithal (based on distribution of
yolk).
 Upper black or darkly pigmented part is animal hemisphere. Lower unpigmented or white part is
vegetal hemisphere.
 The correct sequence in the development of frog is: Fertilization, cleavage, morula, blastula and
gastrula.
 First and second cleavage are holoblastic and equal while all divisions from third cleavage are
unequal holoblastic.
 After 6th/7th cleavage division, the embryo looks like a mulberry shape ball of cells. This is called
Morula stage.
 A cavity called blastocoel appears towards animal hemisphere and this blastula of frog is called
coeloblastula.
 Gastrulation is the process by which a blastula is converted into gastrula.
 By the end of gastrulation, it is converted in to a 3-layered embryo made of ectoderm, endoderm
and mesoderm often enclosing an archenteron.
 Gastrulation results in the formation of a new cavity, archenteron which opens outside through
blastopore.
 Archenteron is present in the lumen of future gut.
 Blastopore occurs in gastrula and opens into archenteron.
 Blastopore will give rise to future anus in frog.
 Posterior side of future tadpole is represented by the side of frog's embryo bearing the yolk plug.
 Neurulation is the stage after gastrulation where neural tube, notochord and gut forms
 Formation of notochord is called ontogenesis.
Fate of germ layers:
a. Ectoderm: Epidermis, Nervous system (brain and spinal cord), eye (retina, lens
and cornea), internal ear.
b. Mesoderm:Dermis, muscular tissue, connective tissue, vascular system, urinary
and reproductive system, eye(choroids).
c. Endoderm: gut, Tongue, lungs, liver, pancreas, middle ear.
Reproductive terms:
i. Autotomy: Phenomena in which an animal cuts its own part which can be
regenerated again. Eg: Hydra, Lizard.
ii. Hermaphroditism: Male and female reproductive organs are present on same
individual;also called bisexual form. Eg:Earthworm
iii. Neoteny: Phenomena in which larva becomes sexually matured and starts
reproducing. Eg: Axolotl larva of Ambystoma.
iv. Metagenesis: Asexually and sexually reproduced forms alternate with each other
in a life cycle. Eg: Obelia
v. Paedogenesis: when larva produces larva.

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vi. Polyembryony: Production of several embryos from the same individual. Eg:
Fasciola
vii. Dioecious:Unisexual forms i.e.male and female reproductive organs are present
on different individuals.

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