BIO 2102 Laboratory Exercise 6:

Deuterostomes: Echinoderms and Chordates

OVERVIEW

This week, we’ll finish up the animal diversity portion of the lab, focusing on
deuterostomes: echinoderms and chordates (both invertebrate and vertebrate sub-
phyla). By the end of lab, you should be able to explain what sets echinoderms apart
from all other deuterostomes, and explain why “chordate” is not synonymous with
“vertebrate.”

GOALS
1. Correctly classify echinoderms at the class level.
2. Correctly classify chordates at the sub-phylum and class level.
3. Compare vertebrate classes to examine the evolution of key traits.

Reading Assignment: Textbook Chapter 32 (Deuterostomes) [Ch. 35, 5th ed.]

Notes: You will need your goggles & dissection kit this week; a lab coat is also advised.

TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION AND LABORATORY OUTLINE

I. Echinoderms (Phylum Echinodermata)

A. Class Asteroidea (Sea stars)
1. Sea star dissection
2. Display specimens
B. Class Ophiuroidea (Brittle stars)
1. Display specimens
C. Class Echinoidea (Sea urchins and sand dollars)
1. Display specimens
D. Class Holothuroidea (Sea cucumbers)
1. Display specimens

II. Chordates (Phylum Chordata)

A. Sub-phylum Urochordata (Sea squirts or Tunicates)
1. Display specimens
B. Sub-phylum Cephalochordata (Lancelets)
1. Display specimens
2. Whole mount slides.
C. Sub-phylum Vertebrata
1. Super-Class Cyclostomata (Jawless vertebrates)
a. Class Myxinoidea (hagfish)
b. Class Petromyzonoidea (lampreys)
i. Preserved lamprey specimen
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2. Super-Class Gnathostomata (Jawed vertebrates)

a. Class Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous Fishes)
i. Preserved Skate specimen
ii. Dogfish embryo
iii. Shark jaws
b. Class Actinopterygii (Ray-finned bony fish)
i. Examine fishes on display
ii. Perch skeleton
iii. Demo Perch scales
iv. Live specimen
c. Class Amphibia (Amphibians)
i. Demo dissected frog
ii. Preserved specimens
d. Class Reptilia (Reptiles)
i. Turtle shells and demo dissection
ii. Preserved specimens
iii. Examine bird skeleton (yes – that’s a reptile!)
iv. Examine feathers
e. Class Mammalia (Mammals)
i. Examine assorted skeletons
ii. Preserved specimens
iii. Skulls with teeth
iv. Live specimen [can you guess what the live specimen
are?]

Section I: PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA (ECHINODERMS)

Finally – our first deuterostome phylum! When you look at a sea star, you’re probably
not thinking that they’re closely related to mammals, but in fact, they are. This phylum,
Echinodermata, is named for the spiny skin that typifies most members. Why are they
classified as Bilaterians?

Describe the three synapomorphies of echinoderms:

1.

2.

3.

There are 5 classes of echinoderms, and we’ll look at 4 of these (we’re not going to
cover the feather stars, although there may be one on display).
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Class Asteroidea: Sea Stars

The classic echinoderms, sea stars tend to have pentaradial symmetry, meaning the
adults are radially symmetric, and tend to have 5 arms. However, some sea stars have
4, 6, or many more arms. (The sunflower star may have up to 30).

Time for dissection number 2. [Please remember the Lab Safety Precautions from last
week - goggles, gloves, and watch those fingers!]

Get a sea star from the back bench. Once again, before you start cutting, examine the
external anatomy. The 5 arms attach to a central disk, where many of the internal
organs are housed.
On top of the central disk, but not necessarily in the center, is the sieve plate
(also known as the madreporite). This small hole is the opening to the water vascular
system. This is the master valve where the sea star takes on or releases water to pump
through its body to move.
On the ventral side (or oral side) of the sea star, in the middle of the central disk,
note the mouth. From the mouth and down the arms extends the ambulacral groove,
lined with tube feet inside. To eat, the sea star latches on to prey, like bivalves, uses
its suction-like tube feet to grasp both shells, and then pries the bivalve apart. Then,
when it has created an opening, the sea star extends its stomach outside its mouth and
into the bivalve, where it digests its prey. (This has to be one of the most grisly ways to
go in the animal kingdom. If sea stars ever invade land, I’m moving to Mars.)
Finally, make sure you notice the hard spiny skin, for which the phylum gets its
name. Now, sketch a dorsal and ventral view of the sea star, noting the structures
above.

Sea star, external anatomy, dorsal view Sea star, external anatomy, ventral view
(Class Asteroidea) (Class Asteroidea)

OK, time to get dirty and do some more dissection.

1. Using your scissors, about 1 cm from the tip of an arm, make a slit across the arm.

2. From both ends of this slit, cut up the arms to the margin of the central disk
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3. Connect those two cuts along the margin of the central disk and remove this
rectangle of skin from the upper portion of one of the arms.
a. You should notice how hard it is to cut this skin, and that is due to the calcareous
endoskeleton.
b. Now that the skin is removed, you should see the cavity underneath, in which the
internal organs are housed. This is the famous coelom we’ve talked so much
about.
c. Within the arm, most of the material you’ll see is a large digestive gland.
d. Beneath this, on some specimens you may be able to observe very dark
gonads, on either side of the ambulacral ridge.

4. Now, cut all the way around the margin of the central disk

5. Before removing this skin, carefully cut around the sieve plate. Then remove the
skin on top the central disk.
a. If your sieve plate is still intact, you should be able to see the stone canal, which
is part of the water vascular system that leads from the sieve plate.
b. The stone canal connects to the circular canal, which rings around the internal
margin of the central disk.
c. From the circular canal, one long radial canal travels down each leg.
d. Then, each of the tube feet is plumbed into the radial canal.

6. Finally, within the central canal, you should be able to see the pyloric stomach,
which may contain some remains of the sea star’s last meal.

7. Label the parts of the water vascular system below.

Water vascular system of a sea star (Class Asteroidea)

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Class Ophiuroidea: Brittle Stars

Brittle stars somewhat resemble sea stars (these classes are thought to share the same
common ancestor). However, there are some key differences in their appearance and
movement. While brittle stars have tube feet, these tube feet lack the suckers and
ampullae found in other echinoderms. Depending on the species, brittle stars can be
carnivores, filter feeders or deposit feeders (or any combination of these). Examine the
box that includes both sea stars and brittle stars, and watch the videos that show how
sea stars and brittle stars move. Describe how sea stars and brittle stars differ in
appearance and movement:

Class Echinoidea: Sea Urchins and Sand Dollars

Sea urchins are also radially symmetric, and in fact, they do have pentaradial symmetry,
but the “penta-” thing is a bit harder to see in living animals (it is more evident in the
skeletons of sand dollars). Urchins tend to be spherical, with long spines coming out
the body. They do have an “upside” and a “downside” though, because their mouth is
on the bottom (ventral) side. They walk using their spines like unjointed limbs. Their
mouth has 5 CaCO3 teeth that join at a point on their oral (or ventral) side. This mouth,
with one of the most creative names in all of biology, is called Aristotle’s lantern.

Another note of interest on sea urchins: these guys pack a punch in the Pacific
Northwest. Believe it or not, they are our most important herbivores in the ocean. We
refer to sea urchins as a keystone species. What effect do you think loss of a sea
urchin population would have on seaweed and marine algae? Would this benefit or
harm organisms that live deeper in the ocean? Explain.

Class Holothuroidea: Sea Cucumbers

These echnioderms kind of ruin many of our preconceptions about echinoderms. As the
name suggests, these are shaped like cucumbers. First, they don’t have spiny skin.
They have feathery tentacles at the front (i.e., oral) end, which they use to filter feed.
They do have a water vascular system and tube feet.

Take a look at the video and images projected on the screen, as well as the preserved
specimen. How would you describe its symmetry? (Does the adult have bilateral
symmetry, radial symmetry, both or neither?) Justify your answer.
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Section II: PHYLUM CHORDATA (Part 1: The Invertebrate Chordates)

So, what ties all the chordates together? Many of these structures are lost as adults,
but at some point all chordates have:

1. 3.

2. 4.

The invertebrate chordates comprise 2 subphyla, the Urochordates and the

Cephalochordates.

Subphylum Urochordata: Sea squirts (aka Tunicates)

Adult sea squirts, or urochordates, look like some of the most primitive animals alive.
In fact, if you confuse them with anything, you’re most likely to confuse them with
sponges. But, they are some of the most derived animals, and they’re closely related to
vertebrates. Adult tunicates are covered by a tough outer tunic (hence the name), and
they have an incurrent siphon and an excurrent siphon, through which they squirt
water (hence their other name). Water is filtered in the pharynx, where it passes over
gill slits (one of those traits common to all chordates). Food passes through a
digestive tract, then out the anus, which dumps into the excurrent siphon.

The tadpole-like larval forms are actually more complex than their adult blob-like
counterparts. All four chordate features are found in the larva. Examine Figure 32.5 in
your text (35.8 in the 5th ed.), and label the urochordate larva below.

Compare the larval and adult forms. Do they undergo direct development,
holometabolous metamorphosis or hemimetabolous metamorphosis? Explain your
answer.

Sea squirt larva (Subphylum Urochordata)

How would you distinguish between an adult sea squirt from other tubular animals, such
as sponges?
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Subphylum Cephalochordata: Lancelets

Lancelets look like very small fish, but they’re not since they’re not vertebrates.
However, they do have all four chordate characteristics, so there’s that at least. These
guys are pretty small and slender. They bury themselves in sand and filter feed. They
get their name, Cephalochordate, because this is the only chordate where the
notochord extends into the head, rather than ending at the neck. Take a look the
whole-mount slide of Amphioxus. Look for the dorsal nerve cord, the thick notochord
beneath it, the gill slits, and the tail. Sketch the lancelet and label the structures below.
You can use Figure 32.5 to help with the labeling.

In addition to the microscope slide, we also have a slightly larger lancelet in jars.

Lancelet whole mount, showing chordate traits

(Subphylum Cephalochordata)

Section III: PHYLUM CHORDATA (Part 2: The Vertebrate Chordates)

Within Phylum Chordata, only species within Sub-phylum Vertebrata exhibit two
synapomorphies: the presence of a cranium (skull) and vertebrae (although the
vertebrae is missing from one key vertebrate group). The evolution of vertebrae marks
the origins of the vertebrate endoskeleton, which functions to protect internal structures
(such as the spinal cord) and to facilitate movement. (Keep in mind that the vertebrate
endoskeleton is structurally different from the echinoderm endoskeleton.)

A. CYCLOSTOMATA (JAWLESS FISHES)

There is a good deal of controversy over the correct taxonomy of cyclostomes (formerly
called agnathans), or jawless fishes. Members of this super-class include lamprey and
hagfishes. These fish were previously united into a single class, Agnatha (which is
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Greek for “no jaws”). However, many taxonomists think that these fish should be
divided into two classes, because of the significant differences between them (the
authors of your textbook are in this camp). Probably the best evidence to split these
rather than to lump them is based on the lack of vertebrae in the hagfish, whereas
lampreys do have vertebrae. (Well, kind of. They have a few pieces of cartilage lining
their spinal cord.) Based on information provided in lecture and your book, is the
absence of vertebrae in hagfish an ancestral trait or a reversion? Explain.

Because of the lack of well-developed vertebrae, it shouldn’t be surprising that

agnathans keep their notochord as adults (which is a key difference from other
vertebrates). Thus, Cyclostomata became a super-class, with lampreys and hagfish
as the two living representative classes of this clade.

Unfortunately, we don’t have any specimens of hagfish for lab, but we do have a
lamprey. Check out the lamprey specimen. Based on the external anatomy, which
structures does this sucker have?

Eyes? Y N Gill slits? Y N Scales? Y N

Paired fins? Y N Teeth? Y N Fins? Y N

B. CLASS CHONDRICHTHYES (CARTILAGINOUS FISH)

Class Chondrichthyes are our first group of gnathostomes (which means:

). Their endoskeleton is more extensive than that of
cyclostomes, but is made of cartilage, not bone. This group includes sharks, rays, and
skates. Sharks are pretty easy to identify, but rays and skates look a lot alike. On both
of these groups, the paired pectoral fins have been enlarged to make that big wing-
looking thing. (Those paired fins are another feature that sets chondrichthyes apart from
cyclostomes.) (Skates’ eggs have a pretty cool name – they’re called mermaid’s
purses.)

One interesting difference between these two

is that rays are viviparous whereas skates are
oviparous. What does this mean?

Sticking a shark into a jar requires a pretty big

jar, so don’t look for any adult sharks around
Dogfish denticles (Class Chondrichthyes)
the lab, but we do have a dogfish shark Magnification: _____X
embryo. Considering this is an embryo, and
there was never an egg shell (at least, not one made of CaCO3), but there is a
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prominent yolk sac, what do you think: are dogfish sharks viviparous or oviparous or
ovoviviparous? ______________________

(Fun fact to astound your friends: dogfish sharks have one of the longest gestation
periods of any known animal: 18 - 24 months!)

Check out the rough skin of the dogfish. No scales on this fish, but notice the
denticles. These tooth-like structures on the skin reduce drag by creating tiny vortices,
and we’re now making synthetic denticles on swimsuits to make our competitive
swimmers faster!

Finally, examine the shark jaws lying on one of the benches. These are definitely jaws.
No doubt about it. So, no agnathans here. Feel these jaws.

C. CLASS ACTINOPTERYGII (RAY-FINNED BONY FISH)

When you think of a fish, this is probably the group you’re thinking about. Salmon,
catfish, bass, halibut (mmmm…. I’m getting hungry!), minnows, guppies, goldfish –
these are all ray-finned, bony fish, or Actinopterygii. Ray-finned fish along with lobe-
finned fish (like the lungfish and the rare coelacanth) have bones and inhabit virtually all
the water-bodies of the earth. (Together, ray-finned and lobe-finned fish are in the
superclass osteichthyes, because “osteo” means bone.)

Like cyclostomes, these critters have a skull. Like chondrichthyes, they have vertebrae
and paired fins. However, the fins in actinopterygii are supported by bones that are
arranged in a ray-like arrangement. Check out the skeleton of a perch and sketch the
bone arrangement in the pectoral fin in the box below (left).

On the demo microscope, check out a perch scale under magnification. I think these
things look awesome under the scope! Bony fish have much more intricate, interlocking
scales. Sketch a perch scale in the box below (right).

Perch fin (Class Actinopterygii) Perch scale (Class Actinopterygii)

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Most bony fish have a similar external anatomy and have a characteristic arrangement
of fins. Take another look at the perch skeleton, and sketch and label its external
anatomy. You should look for the operculum, (this is not a fin, but it is an important
flap that covers the gills, the paired pectoral fins (paired fins directly behind the
operculum), the paired pelvic fins (next set of paired fins as you move back on the
ventral side), the single anal fin (posterior-most fin on the ventral side), the large single
spiny dorsal fin (anterior-most fin on the dorsal side), the smaller single soft dorsal fin
(posterior-most fin on the dorsal side), and the tail fin.

Perch External Anatomy (Class Actinopterygii)

Observe the live goldfish in lab. Describe the motion of the operculum – what do you
think its function is?

Examine the “Evolution of the Vertebrate Circulatory System” graphic on the screen
(also available under the Lab 5 module on Canvas). How many chambers does the fish
heart have? What are they?

D. CLASS AMPHIBIA (AMPHIBIANS)

Amphibians include organisms like frogs, toads, and salamanders. These are our first
tetrapods and the first critters that we’ve looked at that spend a good part of their life on
land. However, because larval amphibians are aquatic and breathe through gills, the
transition to land is not complete. Even on land, much respiration occurs across their
scaleless skin, which is typically kept moist. Another adaptation that we see in
amphibians is in the heart and circulatory system. Examine the diagram of the
vertebrate circulatory systems again. How is the amphibian circulatory system different
from fish? Why do you think the amphibian circulatory system less efficient than the
mammalian circulatory system?

Check out the assortment of amphibians in jars.

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E. CLASS REPTILIA (REPTILES)

Reptiles have completed the transition to land. These tetrapods have dry, scaly skin
(to resist drying out), lay amniotic eggs, and do not undergo metamorphosis. Like fish
and amphibians, most reptiles are ectothermic (except for birds), meaning that they do
not warm their bodies with heat produced internally. However, keep in mind that this
does not mean that they do not regulate their body temperatures. (I realize that’s a
double negative, but I wanted to emphasize the point that they do, indeed, regulate their
body temperature.) This regulation is behavioral, rather than physiological. Many
reptiles are active in the warm parts of the day, and lie out in the sun (positioning their
bodies towards the sun and basking on hot rocks or road surfaces) to capture heat.
Given this information, explain why ectothermy may be an adaptive advantage for
reptiles. What are possible disadvantages to ectothermy?

Reptiles include classes represented by lizards & snakes, alligators & crocodiles, turtles
& tortoises, and birds.

Check out the skeleton of a tortoise and the demo dissection nearby. Notice the shell,
for which case these guys are famous. The dorsal portion of the shell is called a
carapace, and the ventral part is the plastron. Both are covered by scales and
underlain by bone.

From the skeleton, are the ribs free-floating in the body or integrated with the shell?

Do all reptiles have the same type of circulatory system and heart structure? Explain.

Be sure to check out the various reptiles in jars, too. Check out the horned lizard, which
is more commonly known as the horned toad (or horned frogs – the famed mascot of
Texas Christian University). Why is horned “lizard” a more accurate name for this
beastie than horned “toad” or horned “frog”? (P.S. Next to the sea cucumber, these
guys have one of the coolest defense mechanisms. When startled, they actually shoot
blood out their eye and douse their enemy in a stinky bloodbath!)

Once upon a time, Aves were considered their own class of vertebrates. However, as
researchers learned more about the evolution of reptiles and birds, Aves are now
lumped in with reptiles. However, there are a number of features that set birds apart
from other reptiles. Describe at least three such features.
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In Aves, feathers replace scales (although they originate from the same embryological
structure and are formed by similar genetic toolkits as scales - another example of
modularity in action!). In addition to flight, brainstorm two additional purposes of
feathers
________________________________ ________________________________

(Your instructor will play a video illustrating one purpose. Did you guess this one?)

Now check out the bird skeleton. Although you can’t tell it from this view, bird bones are
hollow, to help lighten the load and make it easier to fly. And, the jaws of birds are
modified into a beak, which contains no teeth. (The beaks are highly specialized to their
feeding strategy – more on that in the evolution unit of 2103.) Also, note the huge
sternum, which has a pronounced keel. What’s the purpose of this keel?

One final thing you should know about birds before we move on: birds are the first
group with a true four-chambered heart; they have two atria (like the amphibians and
other reptiles), but whereas amphibians have only one ventricle, birds have two (like
us)! Based on the description of blood-flow that I described in the section on
amphibians, what’s the advantage of having 4 vs. 3 chambers, and why would this be
especially important for a bird?

F. CLASS MAMMALIA (MAMMALS)

We’re now in our neck of the animal family tree. Mammals are named for the
mammary glands, present on females, which are used for what purpose/?
____________________________. Mammals are endothermic and have a four-
chambered heart. Hair (or fur), made of keratin (just like feathers and scales) is a
feature unique to mammals and is possessed by all mammals during at least part of
their life (even in naked mole rats!). Hair grows from follicles that are formed by the
same genetic toolkit as scales and feathers. Thus, all three structures are considered
homologous. Hair has multiple functions, just like feathers. Brainstorm at least 3 roles
for hair.

In addition to hair, many mammals have other keratin outgrowths, including horn
sheaths, nails, claws and hooves. Check out the bull horns on display. True horns are
unbranched, bony outgrowths, covered with a keratin sheath and are only found in the
cow family. Compare these to antlers, which are bony outgrowths only found in the
deer family. They lack keratin sheaths and are typically branched. The other big
difference is that antlers are shed every year, but horns continue to grow throughout the
animal’s life. Think about what deer use antlers for (Hint: they’re almost always only
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found on males). Based on that, what’s the advantage to being branched?

One of the other unique things that we see in mammals is highly specialized dentition.
Take a look at the deer (herbivore) and cat (carnivore) skulls on display, and the bobcat
(carnivore), raccoon (omnivore) and beaver (herbivore) skulls and teeth posted on the
Lab 5 Videos & Images page on Canvas. One thing to pay attention to is the structure
of the teeth (pointy, broad/flat, or in-between) and the placement of each type of tooth in
the jaw. Another thing to observe is the spacing between the front incisors and the next
teeth in the jaw.

Describe at least three differences between the skulls of the carnivore, omnivore and
herbivore:

Based on the differences you observed, what types of advantages would each type of
skull have for carnivores and herbivores? (For example, why would a beaver’s skull and
teeth structure be better suited for eating large branches and leaves than the bobcat’s
skull and teeth structure?)

There’s a lot to learn about the bones and internal anatomy of mammals, but we’ll save
that for the fetal pig dissection. Check out the mammals that we have in jars (especially
the hammer-head bat. Freaky!) Also, check out the mystery skeleton. What is it???
__________________________

Finally, answer the question posed on the first page of this packet: why is “chordate” not
synonymous with “vertebrate”?

Finishing up:

1. Reminder: at the start of the next lab, there will be a lab quiz over the
Deuterostomes. There could also be a question that asks you to compare one of
today’s animals with animals from previous labs.
a. You should be taking pictures, making drawings, writing notes about similarities
and differences between animals, and quizzing each other as you go.
b. Any preserved specimen, models or microscope slides you viewed in lab today
could appear on the exam.
c. You should also be able to define all bolded terms, and identify them on the
appropriate animal.
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2. Get the postlab activity from your instructor or TA. You and your lab partner can
work on this activity together, but each of you will answer the questions on your own
sheet. Check your answers with the instructor or TA before leaving, then keep the
postlab in your lab notebook.

3. Before you leave, be sure your TA checks and signs your lab. TAs will not start
signing labs until 30 minutes remain in the lab session. If you finish early, see #1
above for tips on using your time effectively.

If you’re happy and you know it, clap your hands!

TA signature: