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COMPARATIVE ANATOMY LEC NOTES

FOR FINALS
LESSON 1
Respiratory System

(SYNCHRONOUS DISCUSSION)

Made up of parts responsible for respiration,

phonation, olfaction

1. Respiration- exchange of gases

(Oxygen and CO2) Transverse head:
a. Process of respi takes place in
alveoli of lungs Middle of nasal cavity is vomer (UNPAIRED
b. phonat NASAL) : it separates into right and left
2. Phonation- voice production through
Turbinates= conchae
passage of air through larynx
3. Olfaction- Sense of smell through - Left nasal cavity: has dorsal (nasa
chemoreceptive cells in nasal taas) and ventral turbinates (nasa
epithelium baba)
- Right nasal cavity: has dorsal and
SEGMENTS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
ventral turbinates
1. Nasal Cavity
- Serves as entrance of air from
external environment
- Filters air

DESCRIPTION
- It is bounded dorsally by nasal bone
- Bounded laterally by premaxilla and
maxilla Nasal Meatus: Air spaces (YUNG BLUE)
- Bounded ventrally by palatine bone
Pag pumasok air dyan papasok sa meatus to
- Rostrally bounded by anterior nares
posterior nares
(NOSTRIL OR EXTERIOR NARES)
- Caudal boundary is the posterior - Superior nasal meatus (S)
nares (CHOANAE) - Middle nasal meatus (M)
- Nasal turbinates: - Inferior nasal meatus (I)- most air
o Dorsal turbinates pass through this
o Ventral turbinates - Common nasal meatus (C)
Lateral head:

2. Pharynx
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- Serves as common passageway

from digestive as well as
respiratory tract
- Passageway for food, water, and air
3 Apertures of Pharynx:
- Oropharynx (O)- to mouth
- Nasopharynx (N)- nose
- Laryngopharynx (L) (Yung
pinakamalaki sa ilalim)
4. Trachea
- Windpipe which is a membranous
and cartilaginous tube
- Always patent structure (Structures
that are always open
- Tracheal rings: has Hyaline
Cartilage
5 Layers of Trachea
- Lumen (Yung butas)
- Fascia propria (FP)
- Cartilaginous ring (CR)
- Fibro elastic layer (FL)
- Muscular layer (ML)
- Mucus membrane layer (MML)

3. Larynx
- Voice box organ

DESCRIPTION

- Rima glottis (RG): slit like opening

bounded by vocal cords (MOST
IMPORTANT PART OF LARYNX)
o During swallowing of food
the rima glottis is covered
by epiglottis
- Paired laryngeal cartilages
o Arytenoids (A)
o Corniculates ( C)
o Cuneiforms ( C)
- Unpaired laryngeal cartilages
o Cricoid ( C)
o Thyroid (T)- represents
Patent: Trachea
adams apple
Collapsed: Esophagus
o Epiglottic ( E)
5. Bronchi
Proximal aspect of larynx:
- Connects trachea to lung lobes

DESCRIPTION

- At distal end of trachea it

bifourcates into two
- Carina: point of bifurcation
- Primary bronchi (1.B)
- Secondary bronchi (2.B)
- Tertiary bronchi (3.B)
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- From secondary to tertiary papasok ▪ 1. Apical lobe or

na sa lungs cranial lobe (A)
- Bronchioles- transitional structure ▪ 2. Cardiac lobe or
- ALVEOLI: process of the exchange middle lobe (C)
of gases (O2 and CO2) ▪ 3. Diaphragmatic
- Diffusion- movement of any lobe or caudal lobe
molecules from greater to lesser (D)
concentration

6. Lungs
- Principal site for exchange of gases
- 2 Borders
PARTS o Dorsal Border (D)
- 4 surfaces o Ventral Border (V)
o Coastal surface: facing rib
o Diaphragmatic surface:
facing diaphragm
o Interlobar surface: between
lung lobes
o Mediastinal Surface: facing - An apex (A) pointed- cranial or
middle of heart anterior and Base (B) wide portion-
caudal or posterior

Ventral aspect of lungs:

o Right lung
▪ 4 lobes
▪ 1. Apical lobe or
Other related structures
cranial lobe (A)
▪ 2. Cardiac lobe or 1. Pleura- mesotilial lining of thorax
middle lobe (C) a. Peritoneum yung lining ng
▪ 3. Diaphragmatic cavity
lobe or caudal lobe
(D)
▪ 4. Intermediate lobe
of accessory lobe
(I)
o Left lung
▪ 3 lobes

2. Mediastinum (BLUE)- is a potential
space at middle of thorax
a. Structures are present and
pass through this
b. Structures: Heart (IMPORTANT),
thymus, exophagus, trachea,
nerves, and vice versa
3. Diaphragm- inspiratory muscle
a. Separates thoracic (Heart and
lungs) and abdominal cavity
(Intestine etc)
b. 3 openings are present:
i. Opening for
transmission of
esophagus, aorta, vena
cava
(END OF SYNCHRONOUS DISCUSSION)
(SYNCHRONOUS DISCUSSION)
Circulatory System
- Known as cardiovascular system. It
is made up of part responsible for
blood circulation and nutrient
distribution throughout body
- CARDIO= HEART
- VASACULAR= BLOOD SYSTEM
COMPONENTS:
• Heart
o Hollow muscular organ that
pumps blood throughout body.
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o Present inside mediastinum
that is present in thoracic
between right and left lungs
o Arising from heart are three
blood vessels: Arteries (A),
Capillaries ( C), Veins (V)
o Blood flows through heart to
arteries to capillaries to veins
o Hearts has 3 layers, 4
chambers
o 3 layers
▪ Inner layer
(ENDOCARDIUM)
▪ Middle layer (MYOCARDIUM)
• Made up of cardiac
muscles
▪ Outer layer (EPICARDIUM)
▪ PERICARDIUM Sac outside
heart
▪ Pericardial fluid – provides
buoyancy
• 4 chambers of heart
o Right atrium- 3rd
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o Right ventricle- 2nd to largest

o Left atrium- smallest
o Left ventricle- Largest chamber

• Blood vessels
o Channels which blood flows and
distributed through body
• 4 valves tissues
o Include arteries, veins, and
• Atrioventricular valves
capillaries
o (RAV)Right atrioventricular
valve or tricuspid valve
o Concentric layers of blood
o (LAV) Left atrioventricular valve
vessels: TUNICS OR TUNICA
or bicuspid valve or mitral valve
LAYERS
▪ Outer layer (Tunica
Adventitia)- made up of
connective tissue
collagen??
▪ Middle layer (Tunica
Media)- made up of
smooth muscles made
up of vasoconstriction
o Semilunar valves and vasodilation
▪ Between RV and ▪ Inner layer (Tunica
Pulmonary artery Intima) – made up of
(PULMONARY VALVE or endothelial cells
PULMONIC VALVE)
▪ Between LV and aorta
(AORTIC VALVE)
• 4 major blood vessels
o Blood vessel attached to RA is
vena cava (LARGEST VEIN)
o Arising from RV is pulmonary
o Arteries and arterioles
artery
o Artery- blood vessel that
o Arising or attached to LA is
transport blood away from
pulmonary Vein
heart. It transport oxygenated
o Arising or attached to LV is
blood. Except for pulmonary
Aorta (LARGEST ARTERY)
and umbilical artery which
transports deoxygenated blood
▪ Veins and venules
transport deoxygenated
blood except for
pulmonary vein and
umbilical vein that
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transports oxygenated a. RBC/ erythrocytes

blood i. Biconcave disc that
▪ Branches out into contain oxygen carrying
smaller arterioles molecule which is
▪ Next to arterioles are hemoglobin
microscopic capillaries ii. Iron is essential in
(YUNG RED) hemoglobin synthesis
iii. Mammalian RBC are
non nucleated while
avian RBC is nucleated
iv. Avian RBC center is
nucleus

o Veins and venules

▪ Next to capillaries are
venules (YUNG PINK) b. WBC/ leukocytes
larger and bigger than o Soldiers of body because
capillaries ang venules they fight infections
▪ Veins are bigger than i. Granulocytes- granules
venules (PINK NA are present in
MALAKI) cytoplasm
▪ Veins and venules 1. Neutrophil-
transport deoxygenated hypersegmente
blood back to heart d nucleus
except for pulmonary (maraming
vein and umbilical vein segments)
that transports 2. Eosinophil- bi-
oxygenated blood lobe ang
o Capillaries nucleus
▪ microscopic blood 3. Basophil- uni-
vessels between lobe nucleus
arterioles and venules
▪ Actual site for
exchange of oxygen,
nutrients, and waste
products
• Blood ii. Agranulocytes- no
o Constantly circulating fluid granules ion cytoplasm
throughout cardiovascular 1. Lymphocyte-
system providing body with rounded
nutrition, oxygen and waste nucleus
removal 2. Monocyte- bean
o Blood flows through heart to shaped nucleus
arteries to capillaries to veins or nucleus has
indention
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abdominal cavity. At side vena cava

and aorta.
• Ventral to lumbar vertebra 1-4.
• Right kidney (R) is slightly bigger
than left (L) and is more cranial.

c. Platelets/ thrombocytes
- THEY ARE NOT CELLS THEY
ARE FRAGMENTS OF BONE
MARROW MEGAKARYOCYTES
- Platelets are thrombocytes but
- Platelets are present in
mammals while Thrombocytes
are present in avians
- Megakaryocytes (M) are
present only in bone marrow.
• URETERS
Precursor of platelets
- Ureters are paired tubes which
- Peripheri will disintegrate and
serve as passageway for urine
will produce fragments and
from renal pelvis of kidney
these are the platelets sila ang
- Connected to renal hilus of
lalabas sa bone marrow
kidney

• Platelets play a vital role in blood
clotting forming platelet plug to arrest
bleeding
• Pag mababa platelet it could lead to
bleeding tendencies
• URINARY BLADDER
- Unpaired hollow organ serving
as temporary storage sight for
urine prior to micturition
(urination)
• URETRA
o From caudal; aspect of urinary
bladder to exterior. Uretra (Ur)
Urinary bladder (Ub)

(END OF SYNCHRONOUS DISCUSSION)

(SYNCHRONOUS DISCUSSION)

Urinary System

Made up of parts responsible for:

• Blood formation
• Urine formation
• Urine excretion

Segments of Urinary System

Kidney
• KIDNEYS
• Typical kidney presents a capsule
• Paired reddish brown organs
• Kidneys are bean shaped except in
located at dorsal aspect of
horse for right it is heart shaped left is
bean shaped
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PARTS from glomerulus yung

blood)
• Renal capsule (RC)- fibroconnective - Bowmans capsule (GREEN)
tissue covering for kidney counterpart ▪ Collects filtrate from
is the myocardium glomerulus
• Renal hilus YUNG LIGHT BLUE- - Proximal convulated tubule
indented portion of kidney at medial (BLUE)
aspect where in renal artery (RED), ▪ Sight for amino acid
renal vein (RED)and ureter (YELLOW) and glucose
enter??????? reabsorption
• Regions - Proximal straight tubule (LIGHT
o Peripheral or outer region- BLUE)
Renal cortex ▪ Sight for amino acid
o Second region- Renal medulla and glucose
o Third region- Renal pelvis reabsorption
(present in most domestic - Loop of henle or thin loop of
aniamals except ox/ cattle) henle (YELLOW)
• Renal pyramids (GREEN TRIANGLES); at ▪ Water reabsorption site
base of renal pyramid are renal papillae - Distal straight tubule (RED NA
(YUNG BLUE) STRAIGHT)
• Major and minor calyxes (YUNG PINK) ▪ Target sites for
close to the base the base of renal antidiuretic hormone or
pyramids ADH including the
• Smaller calyxes fuses to form the aldosterone and
major calyxes and major calyx opens in vasopressin
renal pelvis - Distal convolated tubule
• CALYXES= CAVITIES (BLACK)
• Kidney stones are formed are base or ▪ Target sites for
papillae as well as minor, major and antidiuretic hormone or
renal pelvis ADH including the
aldosterone and
vasopressin
▪ Sites of diuretic
segments
- Collecting duct (PURPLE)
▪ Collects final filtrate
from tubules

NEPHRON- structural unit of kidney. Some

parts are present at cortex and some parts at
medulla of kidney

- Glomerulus (RED)
▪ Filters blood
▪ Blood vessels: afferent
(blood towards
glomerulus) and
Efferent arteriole (Away

Some solutes are reabsorbed and some are
secreted along the segments from glomerulus
to distal convolated tubule
Ureter
- Ureters (PINK) are paired tubes
which serve as passageway for
urine from renal pelvis of
kidney
- Connected to renal hilus of
kidney
- Lined with smooth muscle for
peristaltic waves
URINARY BLADDER
- Unpaired piriform hollow organ
- Hollow= cavity is present
- Serves as temporary storage
site of urine
- Anatomic area where stretch
receptors are present (trigone
area)
- Pag napuno ng urine ang
urinary magsstretch tas
magssignal si trigone area sa
brain by way of
parasympathetic nerves to
induce urination
URETHRA
- Attached to caudal aspect ng
urinary bladder
- Passageway of urine to exterior
- 2 segments usually sa male sa
female isa lang
▪ Pelvic urethra (A)
▪ Penile urethra (B)
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Kaya common uti sa female kasi mas maliit
urethra
Common cause of UTI
- Coryne bacteria (common in
ruminants) causes
inflammation of kidney
hanggang urethra
- E. coli (common in dogs) canine
pyomethra
- Proteus- proteins plating
bacteria in urine (kaya
pumapanghi ihi)
Epithelium
- Transitional epithelium- lining
epi from renal pelvis of kidney
- Sa male from transitional
nagchchange into stratified
squamos
Reproductive System (Genital system)
• Made up of parts responsible for
gametogenesis, steroidogenesis, and
reproduction
• GAMETOGENESIS- refers to production
of male and female gametes (sex cells
which are sperm cell and egg cell(ova))
• STEROIDOGENESIS- secretion of male
(testosterone) and female (estrogen
and progesterone) hormones
o Testosterone- promotes sperm
production and development as
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well as development of 4. Penis, Prepuce, and Scrotum

secondary sexual a. Penis (green)
characteristics at puberty b. Prepuce (purple) - the
o Estrogen- responsible for invaginated fold of skin
induction of signs of estrus and covering the penis
development of egg cell c. Scrotum (purple) - skin that
o Progesterone- for maintenance surround and suspend the
of pregnancy and testicle
mammogenesis (development
of mammary gland in
preparation for lactation)
o Reproductive hormones are
steroidal in nature
• REPRODUCTION- refer to perpetuation
of new individuals

PARTS OF MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE • Penile urethra (yung red line sa gitna ng
SYSTEM penis pataas)
Male reproductive organs

1. Testes- principal male gonad (paired)

2. Epididymis and Vas deferens
a. connected at caudal aspect of
testes
b. vas deferens is also called
ductus deferens in animals Female reproductive organs

• Ovary and Uterine tube

3. Accessory sex glands (BLUE)
a. In most domestic animals we
have at least 3-4 accessory sex
glands which are responsible
for secretion of seminal fluid
b. Dog has only one accessory sex
gland and it is the prostate
gland
o Ovaries (RED) are paired.
Counterpart sa male si testes
o Uterine tube or fallopian tube
(GREEN)
• Uterus (BLUE)
• Vagina and Vulva
o Vagina (PURPLE)
o Vulva (YELLOW) external
female genitalia

SEMI DETAILED DISCUSSION OF EACH

SEGMENT
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• TESTES- principal gonad in male

animals. It presents the:
o Tunica albuginea (GREEN)-
second layer.
▪ It is continuous to the
septa or trabeculae
o Tunica vaginalis (RED)- outer
covering of testes
o Septa/ trabeculae (BLUE)-
Partitions inside testicle • ACCESSORY SEX GLANDS
o Seminiferous tubules (YELLOW) o Bulbourethral or the cowpers
– in between septa/ trabeculae gland (PURPLE CIRCLE)
▪ RESPONSIBLE FOR o Ampillae or Ampillary gland
SPERM FORMATION (LIGHT BLUE)
AND DEVELOPMENT o Seminal Vesicle or vesicular
gland (GREEN)
o Prostate gland (BLUE NA
DONUT)- surrounds urethra
specially at level of pelvis
▪ In male if there is
prostatic inflammation,
since prostate gland
surround urethra,
inflammation can cause
obstruction of urine
• EPIDIDYMIS AND DUCTUS DEFERENS –
flow
o Connected at caudal aspect of
testes
o Epididymis can be divided into
three portions: HEAD (H),
BODY(B), TAIL (T)

o The four glands are responsible

for the secretion of seminal
fluid which is a good transport
medium for sperm cells

• PENIS, PREPUCE, AND SCROTUM

o Tail is continuous to ductus o Penis (RED)
deferens upward ▪ Male copulatory organ
o Sperm matures specifically at ▪ GLANS- Free dome
body and tail of epididymis shaped extremity of
o Ductus deferens (GREEN)- long penis
convoluted tube o Prepuce (BLUE)
o Ductus deferens is a muscular ▪ Skin Surrounds and
tube that undergo contraction protects penis
during ejaculation o SCROTUM OR SCROTAL SAC
(LIGHT BLUE)

▪ Skin Surrounds and
protects testes
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
• OVARY AND UTERINE TUBE
o Ovary (RED)- paired organs and
is the principal coned in
females responsible for egg
cell formation and hormone
production (Estrogen and
progesterone)
o Uterine tube or fallopian tube
(GREEN)- has 3 segments
▪ Infundibulum (a)- site
of fertilization or fusion
of egg and sperm cell in
female reproductive
tract in avians
▪ Magnum (b)- site of
fertilization or fusion of
egg and sperm cell in
female reproductive
tract in mammals
▪ Isthmus (c)- constricted
portion of uterine tube
• Uterus
o Plural form (UTERI)
o Present 3 parts
▪ Uterine horn or Cornua
(H/C)
▪ Uterine body or Corpus
(B/C)
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▪ Uterine neck or cervix
(N/C)
• Illustration A represents a bicornuate
uterus which has longer horn but
shorter body
o If an animal is multiple bearing
then the fetus develop along
uterine horn
• Illustration B represents bipartite
uterus where body is longer than horn
o Single bearing animal the fetus
develop in the body
• VAGINA AND VULVA
o From uterine neck we have
vagina
o VAGINA (RED)- site of
insemination in some animals
▪ Some animals deposit
semen in uterus
o VULVA(BLUE)- external female
genitalia in mammals