Respiratory System

ORGANS UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT

 Nose
 Pharynx
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Lungs –
alveoli

FUNCTIONS
 Oversees gas exchange between the blood
and external environment
 Exchange of gases takes place within the
lungs in the alveoli
 Passageways to the lungs purify, warm,
and humidify the incoming air.
NOSE
 The only externally visible part of the
respiratory system
 Air enters the nose through the external
nares (nostrils)
 The interior of the nose consists of a nasal
cavity divided by a nasal septum.
NASAL CAVITY ANATOMY
 Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa on the superior surface.
 The rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory mucosa:
o Moistens air
o Entraps incoming foreign particles
 Lateral walls have projections called conchae:
o Increases surface area
o Increases air turbulence within the nasal cavity
 The nasal cavity is separated from the oral cavity by the palate
o Anterior hard palate (bone)
o Posterior soft palate (muscle)
PARANASAL SINUSES o Palatine tonsils: in the oropharynx
o Lingual tonsils: at the base of the tongue
 Cavities within the bones surrounding the nasal cavity:
o Frontal bone
o Sphenoid bone LARYNX (VOICE BOX)
o Ethmoid bone
 Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages and a spoon-shaped flap
o Maxillary bone
of elastic cartilage (epiglottis)
FUNCTIONS  Routes air and food into proper channels
 Plays a role in speech
 lighten the skull
 act as resonance chambers for speech STRUCTURES
 produce mucus that drains into the nasal cavity
 Thyroid cartilage
o Largest hyaline cartilage; protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s
PHARYNX (THROAT) apple)
 Epiglottis
 Muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx
o Superior opening of larynx; routes food to the larynx and
 3 regions:
air toward the trachea
o Nasopharynx: superior region behind nasal
 Vocal cords (vocal folds)
cavity
o Vibrate with expelled air to create sound (speech)
o Oropharynx: middle region behind mouth
 Glottis: opening between vocal cords
o Laryngopharynx: inferior region attached to
larynx
 The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are common TRACHEA (WINDPIPE)
passageways for air and food.  Connects larynx with bronchi
STRUCTURES  Lined with ciliated mucosa: beat continuously in the opposite
direction of incoming air
 Auditory tubes enter the nasopharynx. o Expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away
 Tonsils: from lungs
o Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids): in the  Walls are reinforced with C-shaped hyaline cartilage
nasopharynx.
PRIMARY BRONCHI RESPIRATORY TREE DIVISIONS
 Formed by the division of trachea  Primary bronchi
 Enters the lungs at the hilus (medial depression)  Secondary “
 Right bronchus is wider, shorter, straighter than left.  Tertiary “
 Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller branches.  Bronchiole
 Terminal bronchiole
LUNGS
BRONCHIOLES
 Occupy most of thoracic cavity
 Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)  Smallest branches of the bronchi
o Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior portion)  All but the smallest branches have reinforcing cartilages
 Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures:  Terminal bronchioles end in alveoli
o Left lung: 2 lobes
o Right lung: 3 lobes RESPIRATORY ZONE
 Structures:
o Respiratory bronchiole
o Alveolar duct
o Alveolar sac
o Alveoli
 Site of gas exchange

ALVEOLI
COVERINGS
 Structures:
 Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the lung surface o Alveolar duct
 Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracic cavity o “ sac
 Pleura fluid fills the area between layers of pleura to o Alveolus
allow gliding.  Gas exchange takes place within the alveoli in the
respiratory membrane
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE (AIR-BLOOD BARRIER)
 Thin squamous epithelial layer lining alveolar walls
 Pulmonary capillaries cover external surfaces of alveoli
GAS EXCHANGE
 Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by diffusion
o Oxygen enters blood
o Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
EVENTS OF RESPIRATION
 Pulmonary ventilation: moving air in and out of the lungs
 External respiration: gas exchange between pulmonary
blood and alveoli
 Respiratory gas transport: transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide via the bloodstream
 Internal respiration: gas exchange between blood and
tissue cells in systemic capillaries.
MECHANICS OF BREATHING (PULMONARY
VENTILATION)
 Completely a mechanical process
 Depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity
 Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to the
flow of gases to equalize pressure.
FROG RESPIRATION
 Mechanisms
1. Gills: eggs are laid into ponds/lakes, and upon hatching, the
tadpole uses internal and external gills in order to respire within
their aquatic environment. The gills filter oxygen from the water
and dispose of respiratory waste products.
2. Lungs: use lungs to respire, bringing air through their nares and
mouth, into the trachea and then to the lungs for gas exchange
and uptake of oxygen.
 Frogs lack the diaphragm which is used to create a pressure
gradient to draw air into the lungs (negative pressure
breathing)
 Frogs use positive pressure breathing and must actively
push air into their lungs
3. Cutaneous respiration: frog’s skin is thin and highly vascular to
allow for gas exchange
 Frogs must live in moist environments, and secrete mucous
from their skin to avoid desiccation
 Allows for the frog to remain almost completely submerged
under water for long periods of time
4. Bucco-pharyngeal membrane
 Frogs can also have gas exchange across the thin, highly
vascular Bucco-pharyngeal membrane
 Occur while the frog is not submerged in water, as it requires
opening of the mouth.
HUMANS MECHANICS OF BREATHING (PULMONARY
VENTILATION)
 Two phases
o Inspiration: flow of air into the lungs
o Expiration: air leaving the lungs
INSPIRATION
 Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract
 The size of thoracic cavity increases
 External air is pulled into the lungs due to an increase in
intrapulmonary volume.
EXPIRATION
 Largely a passive process which depends on natural lung
elasticity
 As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the lungs
 Forced expiration can occur mostly by contracting
intercostal muscles to depress the rib cage.
PRESSURE DIFFERENCES IN THORACIC CAVITY
 Normal pressure within the pleural space is always
negative (intrapleural pressure)
 Differences in lung and pleural space pressures keep
lungs from collapsing
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES
 Normal breathing moves about 500 ml of air with
each breath (tidal volume; TV)
 Many factors affect respiratory capacity:
o Body mass
o Sex
o Age
o Physical condition
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
o Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over
the tidal volume
o Usually between 2100 and 3200 ml
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
o Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
o Approximately 1200 ml
 Residual volume (RV)
o Air remaining in lung after expiration
o About 1200 ml
 Vital capacity (VC)
o The total amount of exchange air
o Vital capacity = TV + IRV +ERV
 Inspiratory capacity (IC): the maximum volume of
air that can be inspired after reaching the end of a
normal, quiet expiration; TV + IRV
  Functional residual capacity (FRC): the volume  Carbon dioxide movement out of the blood
remaining in the lungs after a normal, passive o Blood returning from tissues has higher
exhalation; ERV + RV concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in the alveoli
o Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon dioxide
 Dead space volume (150 ml) vs Functional volume
 Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich and carbon dioxide-
(350 ml) poor
o Air that remains in conducing zone and never
reaches alveoli GAS TRANSPORT IN BLOOD
 Means of oxygen transport in the blood:
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES & CAPACITIES AS o Inside RBC attached to hemoglobin (as
MEASURED BY A SPIROMETER oxyhemoglobin [HbO2[)
o A small amount is carried dissolved in the plasma
 Means of carbon dioxide transport in the blood:
o Most is transported in the plasma as bicarbonate ion
(HCO3-)
o A small amount is carried inside RBC on hemoglobin,
but at different binding sites than those of oxygen

INTERNAL RESPIRATION
 Exchange of gases b/w blood and body cells
 An opposite reaction to what occurs in the lungs
EXTERNAL RESPIRATION o Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue to blood
o Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue
 Oxygen movement into the blood
o The alveoli always has more oxygen than the blood
o Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the area of lower
concentration
o Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen
EXTERNAL RESPIRATION, GAS TRANSPORT, &  The pons appears to smooth out respiratory rate
INTERNAL RESPIRATION SUMMARY  Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 12-15 respirations per
minute
 Hypernea is increased respiratory rate often due to
heightened oxygen needs

NEURAL REGULATION OF RESPIRATION

 Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted to the brain by
the phrenic and intercostal nerves
 Neural centers that control rate and depth are located in the
medulla oblongata