 NASAL CAVITY –extends from the nares

Respiratory System 
to the
choanae
Respiration
1. Ventilation or breathing which is the  NASAL SEPTUM – a partition dividing
movement of the air into and out of the the nasal cavity into right and left parts
lungs  HARD PALATE – floor of the nasal cavity;
2. The exchange of oxygen and carbon separates the nasal and oral cavity
dioxide between the air in the lungs and  CONCHAE – three prominent bony ridges
the blood. on the lateral walls on each side of the
3. The transportation of oxygen and nasal cavity; increase the surface area of
carbon dioxide the nasal cavity and cause air to churn
4. The exchange of oxygen and carbon PARANASAL SINUSES
dioxide between the blood and tissue. – Air-filled spaces within bone
– Maxillary, frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal
Functions – Sinusitis- inflammation of the mucous
1. Respiration membrane of the sinuses.
2. Regulation of blood pH NASOLACRIMAL DUCTS – carry tears from
3. Voice production the eyes
4. Olfaction SENSORY RECEPTOR FOR OLFACTORY-
5. Innate immunity Found at the superior part of the nasal cavity.
SNEEZE REFLEX – dislodges foreign substances
Anatomy from the nasal cavity
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT EPITHELIAL LINING
- External nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, - Stratified Squamous with coarse hairs
larynx (just inside the nares)
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT - Ciliated pseudostratified columnar-
- Trachea, bronchi, lungs most of the nasal cavity
Function
CONDUCTING ZONE - Filters
- Movement of air - Airways for respiration
- Extend from the nose to the bronchioles - Involved in speech
- Well adapted for the movement, - Olfactory receptors
cleaning, warming and humidification of - Warms air
air - Sneezing dislodge materials from the
RESPIRATORY ZONE nose
- Found within the lungs
- Where gas exchange between air and PHARYNX
blood takes place. - Common passageway for both the
respiratory and digestive systems.
NOSE
- Consists of the external nose and nasal THREE REGIONS:
cavity 1. NASOPHARYNX – superior part; posterior to:
 SOFT PALATE – an incomplete muscles
EXTERNAL NOSE and connective tissue partition
– Visible structure that forms a prominent separating the nasopharynx from the
feature of the face oropharynx
– Mostly composed of hyaline cartilage  UVULA – posterior extension of the soft
– Bridge of the external nose consist of palate
bone  PHARYNGEAL TONSIL – helps
 NARES (nostrils) – external openings of defend the body against infection
the nose 2. OROPHARYNX – extends from the uvula to
 CHOANAE – openings into the pharynx the epiglottis; lined with stratified squamous
epithelium.
 a. PALATINE TONSILS – located in the
lateral walls near the border of the oral
cavity and the oropharynx
b. LINGUAL TONSIL – located on the
surface of the posterior part of the
tongue
c. LARYNGOPHARYNX – passes
posterior to the larynx and extends from
the tip of the epiglottis to the esophagus;
lined with stratified squamous epith.
and ciliated columnar epith.
LARYNX
- “Voice box”
- Extend from the base of the tongue to the
trachea; Passageway for air between the pharynx
and trachea
- stratified squamous epithelium lines the vocal
cord and ventricular folds
- psudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium
libes the reminder of the larynx
- Has 3 unpaired cartilages and 6 paired
cartilages; has 9 cartilage structure
1. THYROID CARTILAGE – Adam’s apple;
largest cartilage; attached superior to the
hyoid bone.
2. CRICOID CARTILAGE – most inferior,
forms the base of the larynx on which the
other cartilage rest.
3. EPIGLOTTIS – single cartilage, elastic
cartilage rather than hyaline cartilage.
Prevent swallowed material from entering
the larynx by covering the glottis (opening
of the larynx).
PAIRED (6): they form an attachment site for the
vocal folds
1. CUNEIFORM CARTILAGE (wedge- shape)–
Top
2. CORNICULATE CARTILAGE (Horn-shape)–
Middle
3. ARYTENOID CARTILAGE (ladle- shape)–
Bottom
- Paired cartilages serves as an attachment site
for the vocal folds.
- two pairs of ligaments extend from the anterior
surface of the anterior surface of the arytenoid
cartilage to the posterior surface of the thyroid
cartilage
4. VESTIBULAR FOLDS
– false vocal cords; superior ligaments;
- prevent air from leaving the lungs;
- prevent food and liquid from entering
the larynx.
5. VOCAL CORDS
– true vocal cords; inferior
- primary source of sound production
- air moves past them, they vibrate, and
sound is produce
- force air determine loudness
- tension determines pitch
-
6. LARYNGITIS – inflammation of the mucous
epith. of the vocal folds
TRACHEA
- Windpipe
- Membranous tube attached to the larynx
- Consists of ciliated pseudostratified
columnar epithelium Reinforced with 16-
20 C-shaped cartilage forming anterior
and lateral
- C-SHAPED CARTILAGES – form the
anterior and ateral sides of the trachea;
protect the trachea and maintain an open
passageway for air.
- posterior no cartilage; it has ligamentous
membrane and bundles of smooth
muscle
- divide left and right primary bonchi
 COUGH REFLEX – dislodges foreign
substances from the trachea
- SMOKER’S COUGH – results from
constant irritation and inflammation of
the respiratory passages by cigarette
smoke
BRONCHI
- The trachea divides into the left and right
main
- bronchi or primary bronchi, each of
which connects to a lung
- LEFT MAIN BRONCHUS – more
horizontal because it is displaced by the
heard
- RIGHT MAIN BRONCHUS – where
foreign objects that enter the trachea
usually lodge; more vertical than left.
- supported by c-shape pieces of cartilage
LUNGS
 - Principal organs of respiration
- Cone shaped
- The base rests on the diaphragm
- The apex extend above the clavicle
- Contains many air passageways
(division)
RIGHT LUNG – has 3 lobes (superior, middle,
inferior)
LEFT LUNG – has 2 lobes (superior, inferior)
- The lobes of the lungs are separated by deep,
prominent fissures on the lung surface.
- Each lobe is divided into Bronchopulmonary
segments separated from one another by CT
septa.
- The main bronchi branch many times to form
the TRACHEOBRONCHIAL TREE.
MAIN BRONCHI
1. LOBAR BRONCHI – Secondary
bronchi
2. SEGMENTAL BRONCHI – Tertiary
bronchi
3. BRONCHIOLES
4. TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES
5. RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES
6. ALVEOLAR DUCTS – long, branching
7. hallways with many open doorways
8. ALVEOLI – Small air sacs; where gas
exchange occurs; surrounded by
capillaries (300 million in lungs)
 Alveolar sacs- alveolar ducts end as 2 or
3; chambers connected to 2 or more
alveoli
 Asthma attack- contraction of terminal
bronchioles leads to reduced airflow
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE OF THE LUNGS
– where gas exchange between the air and
blood takes place
– It is very thin to facilitate the diffusion of
gases
– Formed by walls of alveoli and
capillaries
– Alveolar ducts and respiratory
bonchoiles also contributes
Consists of 6 LAYERS:
1. Thin layer of fluid lining the alveolus
2. Alveolar epithelium – composed of simple
squamous epithelium
3. Basement membrane of the alveolar epith.
4. Thin interstitial space
5. Basement membrane of the capillary
endothelium
6. Capillary endothelium – simple squamous
epith.
PLEURAL CAVITIES
- surround the lungs and provide protection
against friction
PLEURA – serous membrane lining the pleural
cavity
 PARIETAL PLEURA – lines the walls of
the thorax, diaphragm and mediastinum
 VISCERAL PLEURA – covers the
surface of the lung
 PLEURAL FLUID – acts as a lubricant
and helps hold the pleural membranes
together
LYMPHATIC SUPPLY
SUPERFICIAL LYMPHATIC VESSELS
- are deep to the visceral pleura;
- they drain lymph from the superficial
lung tissue and the visceral pleura
DEEP LYMPHATIC VESSELS
- follow the bronchi
- they drain lymph from the bronchi and
associated CTs
VENTILATION AND RESP. VOLUMES
VENTILATION (breathing)
- the process of moving air into and out of
the lungs.
- Uses diaphragm, which is skeletal muscle
that separates the thoracic and
abdominal cavities
2 PHASES:
1.INSPIRATION – inhalation; movement of air
into the lungs (breath in)
2. EXPIRATION – exhalation; movement of air
out of the lungs
CHANGING THORACIC VOLUME
MUSCLES OF INSPIRATION
– include the diaphragm and the muscles
that elevate the ribs and sternum, such as
the external intercostals
– inceases the thoracic volume
• DIAPHRAGM – a large dome of skeletal
muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from
abdominal cavity

MUSCLES OF EXPIRATION
– internal intercostals; depress the ribs and
sternum.
– Decreases thoracic volume by depressing
the ribs and sternum
PRESSURE CHANGES AND AIRFLOW
Two physical principles that govern the airflow:
1. Changes in volume result in changes in
pressure.
2. Air flows from an area of higher pressure to an
area of lower pressure
- During INSPIRATION, air flows into the
alveoli because atmospheric pressure is
greater than the alveolar pressure.
- During EXPIRATION, air flows out of
the alveoli because alveolar pressure is
greater than atmospheric pressure.
LUNG RECOIL
- The tendency for an expanded lung to decrease
in size.
- When thoracic volume and lung volume
decrease/occurs during quiet expiration.
- due to elastic fibers and thin film of fluid lining
alveoli
- Two factors keep the lungs from collapsing:
SURFACTANT and PLEURAL PRESSURE.
1. SURFACTANT
– reduces the surface tension of the fluid
lining the alveoli (surface acting agent).
– Mixture of lipoproteins
– Produce by secretory cells of the alveoli
– Keep lungs from collapsing
2. PLEURAL PRESSURE
– lower than alveolar pressure, which
causes the alveoli to expand.
– Less than alveolar pressure
– Keep alveoli from collapsing
CHANGING ALVEOLAR VOLUME
- Increasing thoracic volume results in
decreased pleural pressure, increased
alveolar volume, decreased alveolar
pressure, and air movement into the
lungs (inspiration).
- Decreasing thoracic volume results in
increased pleural pressure, decreased
alveolar volume, increased alveolar
pressure, and air movement out of the
lungs (expiration).
Factors that influence pulmonary ventilation
 Lung Elasticity- lungs need to recoil
between ventilation; decreased by
emphysema
 Lung compliance- expansion of thoracic
cavity; affected if rib cage is damage
 Respiratory passageway resistance-
occurs during asthma attacks
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES – is the process of
measuring volumes of air that move into and out
of the respiratory system.
SPIROMETER – device that measures the resp.
volumes
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES – are measures of
the amount of air movement during different
portions of ventilation
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES – are sums of two
or more respiratory volumes
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES:
1. TIDAL VOLUME – air inspired or
expired with each breath (at rest, quiet
breathing = 500mL)
2. INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME –
air that can be inspired forcefully
beyond the resting TV (3000mL)
3. EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME – air
that can be expired forcefully (1100mL)
4. RESIDUAL VOLUME – air still
remaining in the respiratory passages
(cant be measure)
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES:
 VITAL CAPACITY –
- IRV + TV + ERV
- It is the maximum volume of air that
a person can expel from the resp. tract
after maximum inspiration (4600mL)
 TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY –
- IRV + ERV + TV +RV
- Also equal to the VC + RV (5800mL)
 FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY
- ERV + RV
- Amount of air remaining in the lungs
at the end of a normal expiration
(2300mL)
 INSPIRATORY CAPACITY
- TV + IRV
 - Amount of air a person can inspire
maximally after a normal expiration
(3500mL)
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PULMONARY
VOLUMES
- GENDER- females is usually 20-25%
less than male
- AGE- young adult reaches maximum
amount of vital capacity and gradually
decreases in elderly
- HEIGHT- tall people usually greater
than short people,
- WEIGHT- thin have greater than obese
people
Forced expiratory vital capacity- rate ehich lung
volume changes during direct measurement of
the vital capacity.
GAS EXCHANGE
- Gas exchange bet. air and blood occurs in the
respiratory membrane
DEAD SPACE – the parts of the resp.
passageways where gas exchange bet. air and
blood does not occur.
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE
- Increases in the thickness of the
respiratory membrane result in
decreased gas exchange.
- Gas exchange between blood and air
occurs
- Does not occure in bronchioles, bronchi,
trachea
- Influenced by thickness of membrane,
total area of membrane, partial pressure
of gasses.
SURFACE AREA
- Total surface area is 70 square meters
(racquetball court)
- Small decreases in surface area
adversely affect gases change during
strenuous exercise.
- When the surface area is decreased to
1/3 or 1/4 of normal, gas exchange is
restricted under resting conditions.
PARTIAL PRESSURE
- is the pressure exerted by a specific gas
in a mixture of gases, such as air.
- Total atmospheric pressure of all gases
at the sea level is 760 mm HG
- Atmosphere is 21% o2
- Partial pressure for o2 is 160 mm Hg
- Upper case letter P represent the
pmaximuartial pressure of certain gas
(Po2)
DIFFUSION OF GASES IN THE LUNGS
- cells in the body use O2 and produce
Co2
- blood return from tissue and entering
lungs
- O2 diffuses from alveoli into pulmonary
capillaries (blood)
- Co2 diffuses from capillaries into alveoli
DIFFUSION OF GASES IN THE TISSUES
- O2 diffuses from a higher pp in the
tissue capillaries to a lower pp in the
tissue spaces.
- CO2 diffuses from a higher pp in the
tissues to a lower pp in the tissue
capillaries.
GAS TRANSPORT IN THE BLOOD
OXYGEN TRANSPORT
OXYHEMOGLOBIN – hemoglobin with oxygen
bound to its heme groups
MORE OXYGEN IS RELEASED FROM
HEMOGLOBIN IF (FOUR FACTORS):
1. Partial pressure for O2 is low
2. Partial pressure for CO2 is high
3. pH is low
4. Temperature is high
CO2 TRANSPORT AND BLOOD pH
CARBONIC ANHYDRASE – enzyme that
promotes the uptake of CO2 by RBCs
- As CO2 levels increase, blood pH decreases
(becomes more acidic)
- As CO2 levels decrease, blood pH increases
(becomes more basic)
RHYTHMIC BREATHING
RESPIRATORY AREAS IN THE BRAINSTEM
 MEDULLARY RESPIRATORY CENTER –
establishes rhythmic breathing
 DORSAL RESPIRATORY GROUPS (2) –
primarily responsible for stimulating
contraction of the diaphragm.
 VENTRAL RESPIRATORY GROUPS (2) –
primarily responsible for stimulating the
 external and internal intercostal, and
abdominal muscles.
 PRE-BOTZINGER COMPLEX – establish the
basic rhythm of breathing
 PONTINE RESPIRATORY GROUP
– is a collection of neurons in the pons.
– It plays a role in switching between
inspiration and expiration.
– alveolar walls, and thickening of
GENERATION OF RHYTHMIC BREATHING
- involves the integration of stimuli that start and
stop inspiration
1. Starting inspiration
2. Increasing inspiration
3. Stopping inspiration
respiratory rate.
EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE RESP. SYSTEM
1. VC and Maximum min. ventilation
decrease
2. RV and dead space increase
3. Increase in resting TV compensates
for increased dead space, loss of
alveolar walls
4. The ability to remove mucus from
respiratory passageways decreases
with age

NERVOUS CONTROL OF BREATHING

HIGHER BRAIN CENTERS – allow voluntary
control of breathing.

HERING-BREUER REFLEX – supports rhythmic

respiratory movements by limiting the extent of
inspiration

TOUCH, THERMAL, PAIN RECEPTORS – can

stimulate breathing

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF BREATHING

 HYPERCAPNIA – a greater than normal
amount of CO2 in the blood
 CARBON DIOXIDE – major chemical
regulator of breathing
 CHEMORECEPTORS (in medulla
oblongata) –
 respond to changes in blood pH
 CHEMORECEPTORS (in carotid and
aortic bodies) – respond to changes in
blood O2.
 HYPOXIA – a condition when blood O2
declines to a low level
EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON BREATHING
1. Breathing increases abruptly
2. Breathing increases gradually
ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD – the highest level of
exercise that can be performed without causing a
significant change in blood pH

RESPIRATORY ADAPTATIONS TO
EXERCISE
- Training results in increased minute volume at
maximal exercise because of increased TV and