ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB

- Outer Parietal Pleura lines

COVERAGE: the chest cavity
COMPONENT STRUCTURES OR
ORGANS SURFACES OF THE LUNGS:
I. Lungs – the main respiratory
organ  Basal Surface is a broad, inferior
II. Upper Respiratory Tract – concave portion and fits over the
passageways of air
A. Nose convex area of the diaphragm.
B. Pharynx – throat  Apecal Surface is a narrow, superior
C. Larynx – voice box portion of the lungs
D. Trachea – windpipe
 Costal Surface lies against the ribs
E. Bronchi
III. Respiratory Muscles
A. Diaphragm
B. Intercostal Muscles
C. Pectoralis Muscles
D. Abdominal Wall

I. Lungs

 Mediastinal (medial) Surface

contains the vertical slit (hilus)
through which the bronchi,
pulmonary vessels and nerves enter
and exit.
A. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE  Cardiac Surface is a medial left
LUNGS concavity where the heart lies.
 Paired cone-shaped organs found
inside the pleural compartments of
the thoracic cavity
 Provided with pleural membranes
(pleura) as protective covering.
- Inner visceral pleura adheres
closely to the lungs and dips
into the fissures between lobes.

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 Pleural Cavity with pleural fluid (as  The right lung is made up of 3
lubricant) between the pleural lobes – superior, middle, and
membranes. inferior lobes.
 The two lungs are not symmetrical in  The left lung has only 2 –
location because the liver bulges up superior and inferior lobes; no
on the right side and the heart takes middle lobe.
more space on the left side than the
right.
 The left lung is thinner (narrower)
and longer than the right lung; the
right lung is higher (shorter) in
location and broader than the left
lung.

 Each lobe is further subdivided

into 10 bronchopulmonary
segments (lobules),
 A lobule has hundreds of alveoli
and gases; lymphatic vessel, a
small vein (pulmonary venule)
and an artery (pulmonary
arteriole)

B. LOBES

The lungs are divided into lobes and

lobules by deep fissures.

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II. UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT inferior nasal conchae for the lateral
A. NOSE – EXTERNAL PORTION walls.

 The external portion protrudes from

the face and is highly variable in
shape.
 It consists of a supporting framework
of bone and cartilage with skin and
lined with mucous membrane.
 On the undersurface of the external
nose are two opening – nostril or
External nares.

FUNCTIONS OF THE NOSE

1. The external parts serve to guide the

air into the interior portion of the
nose.
2. The internal structures serve to
warm, moisten and filter the
incoming air. The olfactory stimuli
A. NOSE – INTERNAL PORTION
receive the chemical stimulus
 The bones that bound the nasal cavity
(gas/odor). The resonating chamber
are – ethmoid bone forming the roof;
provides speech sound capacity.
palatine bones and maxillae of the
hard palate forming the floor;

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B. PHARYNX (THROAT)
Pharynx is a tubular passageway that is
attached to the base of the skull (internal
nares) and extends downward to the
esophagus.
 Specifically, it lies posterior to the
nasal cavity and oral cavity and just
anterior to the cervical vertebrae.
 Its walls are composed of skin,
muscles and are lined with mucous
membrane.
PHARYNX – NASOPHARYNX
 The uppermost portion of the
pharynx that lies posterior to the
internal nasal cavity and extends to
the plane of the soft palate.
 Consists of 4 openings – a pair
communicates anteriorly with the
nasal cavities by way of the two
posterior nares; a pair communicates
with the middle ears by way of the
two auditory or eustachian tube.
FUNCTIONS:
It is purely respiratory in function.
 The nasopharynx exchanges air
with nasal cavities so that the air
pressure inside the middle ear equals
the pressure of the atmospheric air
flowing through the nose and
pharynx.
 Receives the packages of dust laded
mucus and carries down toward the
mouth.
PHARYNX – OROPHARYNX
Oropharynx lies posterior to the oral
cavity and extends from the soft palate to
the level of the hyoid bone.
 It receives a single opening
(fauces) from the mouth.
 Functionally, it serves both
respiratory and digestive
functions since it is the
common passageway for both
air and food.
PHARYNX – LARYNGOPHARYNX
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Laryngopharynx extends
downward from the hyoid bone and opens
into the esophagus posteriorly; and into the
larynx anteriorly.
 Functionally, it is both
respiratory and digestive
segment of the pharynx.

 Has extrinsic ligaments

connecting the thyroid
cartilage and epiglottis with
hyoid bone; and cricoid
cartilage with trachea.
 Has intrinsic ligaments
connecting the cartilages of the
larynx with each other.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PHARYNX:

1. Serves as a passageway for air and
food
2. Provides a resonating chamber for
sound production (phonation).

C. LARYNX (VOICEBOX)
The larynx is a short passageway that
connects the pharynx with the trachea.
 It lies in the midline of the
neck anterior to the 4th through
the 6th cervical vertebrae.
 Its walls are supported by 9
pieces of cartilages (3 single
and 3 paired cartilages).
 it has a cavity that extends
from the entrance to the lower
border of the cricoid cartilage
where it is continuous with that
of the trachea.
 It has a pair of folds composed
of mucous membrane:

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 Ventricular folds or false vocal cords
are the upper pair of folds and do not
function in phonation.
 Vocal Folds or true vocal cords
enclose a strong band of connective
tissue (vocal elastic ligament) and play a
role in phonation.
 it has a space between the vocal cords
named as glottis.
LARYNX – SINGLE CARTILAGE
3. Epiglottis – is a leaf-shaped piece of
cartilage lying on top of the larynx.
- It extends above the thyroid
cartilage in front of the entrance to
the larynx.
- The stem portion of the epiglottis is
attached to the thyroid cartilage
while the leaf portion is unattached
and free to move up and down like
a trap door.
 During swallowing, the free edge of
the epiglottis forms a lid over the
glottis (space between the true vocal
cords in the larynx).
 In this way, the larynx is closed off
and liquid and foods are routed into
the esophagus and kept out of the
trachea.
Cricoid cartilage (single cartilage)– is a
ring of cartilage forming the inferior walls
of the larynx. It is attached to the first ring
of tracheal cartilage.
LARYNX – PAIRED CARTILAGES
Arytenoid Cartilages – are pyramidal in
shape located at the superior border of the
cricoid cartilage.
- They are attached to the vocal
cords and pharyngeal muscles
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and by their action can move the
vocal cords.
Corniculate Cartilages – are cone-shaped
cartilages located at the spaces of each
arytenoid cartilages.
 The trachea is encircled by a series of
16 to 20 horizontal, incomplete rings
of hyaline cartilage that look like a
series of letter C’s stacked one on top
of another.
 The open parts of the C’s face the
esophagus and permit the esophagus
to expand into the trachea during
swallowing.

Cuneiform Cartilages – are rod-shaped

cartilages in the mucous membrane fold that
connect the epiglottis to the arytenoid
cartilages.

D. TRACHEA – WINDPIPE
 Trachea is a flexible, tubular
structure located anterior to the
esophagus and extends from the
larynx to the 5th thoracic vertebra.
 Histologically, it is lined with
pseudostratified columnar ciliated E. BRONCHI AND BRONCHIAL TREE
epithelium with goblet cell and basal (RESPIRATORY TREE)
cells.  The bronchi are the bifurcations of
 Its walls are composed of smooth the trachea at the level of the 5th
muscles and elastic connective thoracic vertebra.
tissues.

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 The right bronchus enters the right 3. As the cartilages disappear, the
lung while the left bronchus enters smooth muscle tissue become
the left lung. The bronchi enter the distinct.
lungs in the hilus. 4. The ciliated columnar epithelium
 Inside each lung, the bronchus gives changes to simple cuboidal in the
several branches which resemble a terminal bronchioles.
tree.
 The branches are as follows:
Bronchus
- Secondary or lobar
bronchi
- Terminal or segmental
bronchi
Bronchioles
- Terminal bronchioles
- Respiratory Bronchioles
- Atria or alveolar ducts
(These open into the alveoli of the lungs)

FEATURES OF THE BRONCHI

1. Its continuous branching resembles a
tree trunk hence referred to as
bronchial tree.
2. The rings of cartilages are replaced
by plates of cartilages that finally
disappear in the bronchioles.

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An Alveolus
COVERAGE:
A. Definition of Respiration
B. Review of the Respiratory Tree
C. Alveolus / Alveoli
D. Respiratory Membrane
E. Pulmonary Ventilation
F. Mechanics of Breathing Inhalation and
Exhalation
G. Respiratory Gases

A. Definition of Respiration
RESPIRATION
Delivers air-containing oxygen to the
blood and removes gaseous waste products
of metabolism.

External Respiration
Pulmonary Ventilation
-Between the alveoli of the lungs and
the blood

Internal Respiration
-Between the body cells and the Cellular Respiration
blood - Sum of biochemical events
utilizing oxygen.

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Ventilation or Breathing
- Mechanical process; movement of
air into and out of the lung;
inspiration and expiration
B. RESPIRATORY TREE
1. Primary Bronchus
2. Secondary Bronchus
3. Tertiary / Segmental Bronchi
4. Terminal Bronchioles
5. Respiratory Bronchioles
6. Alveolar Ducts
4. A group of several alveoli with a
common opening into an alveolar
duct is named as alveolar sac.
5. Lined by a single layer of squamous
epithelium composed of squamous
cells or Type I cells.
6. It has also septal cells or Type II cells
which are smaller, scattered,
cuboidal secretory cells. These
secrete detergent-like phospholipid
called surfactant which helps keep
the alveoli inflated by reducing
surface tension.

C. ALVEOLI / ALVEOLUS
Alveoli – Features
1. The functional units of the lungs
where gas exchange takes place by
diffusion.
2. These are clustered in bunches of
grapes and provide enough surface
area to allow ample gas transfer.
3. An alveolus looks like a bubble 7. Alveoli also have phagocytic
which is supported by a basement alveolar macrophages adhering to the
membrane of basal lamina. alveolar wall or circulate freely in the
lumen of the alveoli. These cells
Passive Transport Mechanism is a ingest and destroy microorganisms
downhill pattern while Active Transport and other foreign particles.
Mechanism is an uphill pattern. This is
according to concentration gradient.

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8. The alveoli are surrounded by
numerous capillaries whose walls are
thin enough to facilitate diffusion of
gases.
9. The alveolar walls and capillary
walls must be thin enough to give a
maximum permeability yet strong
enough to hold open the air cavities.
These walls where gas passes
through are known as alveolar-
capillary membrane or respiratory
membrane.
D. RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE
Also called the alveolar – capillary
membrane which the includes the alveolar
walls (simple squamous epithelium) and its
basement membrane (basal lamina) and
the capillary walls (simple squamous
epithelium) and its basement membrane
(basal lamina).
- Its thickness is about 4 cm which is
much thinner than a sheet of paper. This
allows diffusion of gases to and from the
alveoli of the lungs.
Alveolar wall of the Alveolus
 Basement Membrane of the Alveolar
Wall
 Basement Membrane of the
Capillary wall
 Capillary Wall of the Capillary
E. PULMONARY VENTILATION /
BREATHING
Pulmonary Ventilation or
breathing is the mechanical flow of air into
(inhalation) and out (exhalation) the lungs.
Air moves into the lungs when the air
pressure inside the lungs is less than the air
pressure in the atmosphere and out of the
lungs when the pressure inside the lungs is
greater than the pressure in the atmosphere.
(Boyle’s Law – inverse relationship
between volume and pressure)
F. Mechanics of Breathing
The changes in size of the chest are
attributed to the muscles namely –
diaphragm, intercostal muscles, pectoralis
muscles and the muscles of abdominal wall.
Inspiration/Inhalation
1. Contraction of the diaphragm and
the intercostal muscles upon
stimulation when impulses from
the CNS arrive by way of phrenic
and intercostal nerves.
2. Flattening of the diaphragm and
elevation of the ribs –
enlargement of the thoracic cavity.
3. Decrease in the intrapleural
(pressure within the pleural space)
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and intrapulmonic pressure as the
volume of gas is increased.
4. Continuous flowing of air into the
lungs equalizes the intrapulmonic
pressure (pressure within the
lungs) to that of the atmospheric
pressure.
Expiration/Exhalation
1. Cessation of impulses from the
CNS – relaxation of the
diaphragm and the intercostal
muscles.
2. Decrease of the thoracic cavity as
the muscle return to their resting
position, and the elastic lung
recoil.
Boyle’s Law and Breathing: Exhalation
During exhalation,
 Lung volume decreases
 Pressure within the lung increases
 Air flows from the higher pressure in
the lungs to the outside
G. RESPIRATORY GASES
Only oxygen and carbon dioxide are of
physiologic significance under ordinary
circumstances. Nitrogen is serving
merely to dilute the oxygen. The amount
of these respiratory gases vary in
inspired, expired and alveolar air.
Carbon
Oxygen
Dioxide
Inspired Air 20.93% 0.04%
Alveolar
14.00% 5.50%
Air
Expired Air 15.70% 4.40%
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