RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Overview of Topics
A. Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System
B. Respiratory Physiology
C. Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
D. External Respiration, Gas Transport, and Internal Respiration
E. Control of Respiration

Topics
A. Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System
WHAT: The respiratory system provides oxygen to the body, disposes of carbon dioxide, and helps
regulate blood pH
HOW: Gas exchange occurs in the air sacs of the lungs, called alveoli, and at the capillary beds around
the body
WHY: Without oxygen, cells will eventually die. Too much carbon dioxide in the blood will cause the
blood pH to become acidic, which will interfere with cellular function

 The organs of the respiratory system include the

o nose
o pharynx
o larynx
o trachea
o bronchi and their smaller branches
o lungs which contain the alveoli
 CONDUCTING PASSAGEWAYS
o carry air through the lungs
o upper respiratory tract: nose to the larynx
o lower respiratory tract: trachea to the alveoli
o purify, humidify, and warm incoming air
 THE NOSE
o only externally visible part of the respiratory system
o nostrils or nares – where air passes through to enter the nose
o nasal cavity consists the interior of the nose
o nasal septum divides the nasal cavity
o respiratory mucosa (lining of the nasal cavity) rests on a rich network of thin-walled
veins that warms the air as it flows past.
o mucus – produced by the respiratory mucosa, moistens the air and traps incoming bacteria
and other foreign debris
o lysozyme – present in the mucus that destroy bacteria chemically
o ciliated cells – moves the sheet of contaminated mucus posteriorly toward the throat,
where it is swallowed and digested by stomach juices
o conchae – three mucosa-covered projects found on the lateral walls of the nasal cavity;
increase the surface area of the mucosa exposed to the air; also increases turbulence
where air swirls through the twists and turns deflecting inhaled particles onto mucus-coated
surfaces, where they are trapped and prevented from reaching the nose
o palate – separates the nasal cavity from the oral cavity
 hard palate – supported by bone
 soft palate – unsupported by bone
o paranasal sinuses
 located in the
 frontal bone
 sphenoid bone
 ethmoid bone
 maxillary bone
 surrounds the nasal cavity
 lighten the skull
 resonance chamber for speech
 produce mucus that drains into the nasal cavities
o nasolacrimal ducts – drain tears from the eyes, empty into the nasal cavities
 THE PHARYNX
o muscular passageway about 13 cm long
o commonly called the throat
o common passageway for food and air
o continuous with the nasal cavity via the posterior nasal aperture
o three regions
 nasopharynx
 superior portion where air enters
 pharyngotympanic tubes (Eustachian tubes) empty into the nasopharynx
 oropharynx
 laryngopharynx
o tonsils – clusters of lymphatic tissue found in the pharynx
 pharyngeal tonsil or adenoid (1) – singular tonsil found high in the nasopharynx
 palatine tonsils (2) – found in the oropharynx at the end of the soft palate
 lingual tonsils (2) – lie at the base of the tongue
 THE LARYNX
o voice box
o routes air and food into their proper channels
o plays a role in speech
o inferior to the pharynx
o formed by eight rigid hyaline cartilages and a spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage called
the epiglottis
o thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple) – shield-shaped and largest of the hyaline cartilages
o epiglottis
 “guardian of the airway”
 protects the superior opening of the larynx
o cough reflex – triggered to prevent anything other than air from continuing into the lungs
o vocal folds (true vocal cords)
 pair of folds
 part of the mucous membrane of the larynx
 vibrate with expelled air
 ability of the vocal folds to vibrate allows us to speak
 glottis – the vocal folds and the slitlike passageway between them
 THE TRACHEA
o windpipe
o from the larynx down its length (10-12 cm) to the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra
o C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
o the open parts of the rings abut the esophagus and allow it to expand anteriorly when we
swallow a large piece of food
o the solid portions support the trachea walls and keep it patent during breathing
o trachealis muscle lies next to the esophagus and completes the wall of the trachea
posteriorly

 THE MAIN BRONCHI

o formed from the division of the trachea
o each main bronchus runs obliquely before it plunges into medial depression (hilum) of the
lung
o right main bronchus
 wider, shorter and straighter than the left
 most common site for an inhaled foreign object to become lodged
 THE LUNGS
o fairly large organs
o occupy entire thoracic cavity except for the most central area (mediastinum)
o apex – narrow superior portion of each lung; deep to the clavicle
o base – broad lung area resting on the diaphragm
o fissures – divides the lungs into lobes; left lung has 2 lobes; right lung has three
o pleural membranes (pleurae)
 pulmonary pleura or visceral pleura – covers the surface of the lungs
 parietal pleura – lines the walls of the thoracic cavity
o pleural membranes produce pleural fluid
o pleural fluid
 slippery serous fluid
 allows lungs to glide easily over the thorax wall during breathing
 causes the two pleural layers to cling together

o THE BRONCHIAL TREE

 a network of respiratory passageways within the lungs
 main bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles
 o RESPIRATORY ZONE STRUCTURES
 respiratory bronchioles
 alveolar ducts
 alveolar sacs
 alveoli
 respiratory zone – the only site of gas exchange
 all other respiratory passages are CONDUCTING ZONE STRUCTURES
 The walls of the alveoli are composed largely of a single, thin layer of simple
squamous epithelial cells.
 alveolar pores
 connect neighboring air sacs
 provide alternative routes for air to reach the alveoli whose feeder
bronchioles have been clogged by mucus or otherwise blocked
 pulmonary capillaries – a cobweb of capillaries that cover the external surface of
the alveoli
 respiratory membrane (air-blood barrier) – fused basement membranes of
alveolar and capillary walls
 alveolar macrophages (dust cells)
 final line of defense for the respiratory system
 wander in and out of the alveoli picking up bacteria, carbon particles, and
other debris
 cuboidal surfactant-secreting cells
 produce a lipid molecule called surfactant which coats the gas-exposed
alveolar surfaces and is very important in lung function
B. Respiratory Physiology
 The major function of the respiratory system is to supply the body with oxygen and to dispose of
carbon dioxide. To do this, at least four distinct events, collectively called respiration, must occur
 EVENTS DURING RESPIRATION
 Pulmonary ventilation (breathing)
 movement of air into and out of the lungs
 External respiration
 gas exchange between the pulmonary blood and alveoli
 Respiratory gas transport
 gas must be transported to and from the lungs and tissue cells of the body via
the bloodstream
 Internal respiration
 gas exchange between the blood and cells inside the body
 MECHANICS OF BREATHING
 Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to the flow of gases to equalize
the pressure. (Volume and Pressure are inversely proportional)
 Two Phases of Breathing
 Inspiration
 Contraction of the inspiratory muscles, diaphragm and external
intercostals, increases the size of the thoracic cavity. (Volume increases,
Pressure decreases)
 The result is a decrease in gas pressure producing a partial vacuum,
causing air to flow into the lungs until the intrapulmonary pressure equals
atmospheric pressure
 Expiration
 passive process in healthy people
 depends more on the natural elasticity of the lungs than on muscle
contraction
 as inspiratory muscles relax and the lungs recoil, intrapulmonary volume
decreases causing the gases inside the lungs are forced more closely
together, and the intrapulmonary pressure rises to a point higher than the
atmospheric pressure. (Volume decreases, Pressure Increases)
 If the respiratory passages are narrowed or clogged, expiration becomes
an active process. Expiration becomes forced expiration where internal
intercostal muscles are activated to help depress the rib cage, and the
abdominal muscles contract and help to force air from the lungs by
squeezing the abdominal organs upward against the diaphragm.
 intrapleural pressure – pressure within the pleural space is always
negative. This is to prevent the lungs from collapsing.
C. Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
 Tidal volume or TV (500 ml) – volume of air into and out of the lungs during normal quiet
breathing
  Inspiratory reserve volume or IRV (3100 ml) – volume of air taken in forcibly above the tidal
volume
 Expiratory reserve volume or ERV (1200 ml) – volume of air forcible taken exhaled beyond
tidal expiration
 Residual volume (1200 ml) – volume of air remaining in the lungs after strenuous expiration
 allows gas exchange to go on continuously even between breaths
 helps keep the alveoli open or inflated
 Vital capacity (4800 ml) – total amount of exchangeable air
 TV + IRV + ERV
 Dead space volume (150 ml) - air that enters the respiratory tract that remains in the
conducting zone passages and never reaches the alveoli
D. External Respiration, Gas transport and Internal Respiration
 External Respiration
 actual exchange of gases between the alveoli and the blood
 Gas Transport
 Oxygen is transported in the blood in two ways.
 attaching to hemoglobin molecules inside the RBC to form oxyhemoglobin
 dissolving in the plasma
 Carbon Dioxide
 most are transported in plasma as bicarbonate ion (HCO3 -)
 converted inside the RBCs as bicarbonate
 Internal respiration
 exchange of gases between the blood and the tissues
E. Control of Respiration
 Neural Regulation: Setting the Basic Rhythm
 phrenic nerves and intercostal nerves – regulate the activity of the respiratory
muscles (diaphragm and external intercostals)
 medulla and pons – where the neural centers for respiratory rhythm and depth
 Medulla contains two respiratory centers
 ventral respiratory group
 contains both inspiratory and expiratory neurons that alternately send
impulses to control the rhythm of breathing
 inspiratory neurons stimulate the diaphragm and external intercostals via
the phrenic and intercostal nerves, respectively
 expiratory neurons – stop the stimulation of the diaphragm and external
intercostals
 dorsal respiratory group
 integrates sensory information from chemoreceptors and peripheral
stretch receptors (in bronchioles and alveoli)
 Pons help to smooth the transitions between inhalation and exhalation during singing,
sleeping and exercising
 Nonneural Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate and Depth
 Physical Factors
 talking, coughing and exercising
 Volition (Conscious control)
 voluntary control of breathing is limited, respiratory centers will simply ignore
messages from the cortex (our wishes) when the oxygen supply in the blood is
getting low or blood pH is falling
 Emotional factors
 Chemical factors
 the most important factor – levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the blood
 increased level of carbon dioxide and a decreased blood pH – most
important stimuli leading to an increase in the rate and depth of breathing
 peripheral chemoreceptor regions in the aorta and in the fork of the
common carotid artery – detect oxygen concentration in the blood
 THE BODY’S NEED TO RID ITSEFL OF CARBON DIOXIDE IS THE MOST
IMPORTANT STIMULUS FOR BREATHING