Chapter 1.

The Human Organism NegFeedMech components:

1.1 Anatomy and Physiology 1. Receptor – monitors the variable
Anatomy – investigates the body’s structure, cut 2. Control Center – determines the set point of the
apart variable
Developmental Anatomy – between conception 3. Effector – adjust the value of the variable
and adulthood Stimulus – changed variable
Embryology – conception – 8th week
Cytology – structure of cell Positive Feedback – deviation from the set point is
Histology – examines tissue greater
Gross Anatomy – w/out the use of microscope
System – group of structures w/ common function 2 principles of homeostatic mechanism:
Surface Anatomy – looking at the outside to 1. failure of NegFeedMech results to disease
visualize what’s inside 2. some PosFeedMech could be detrimental
Anatomical Imaging – x-ray, ultrasound, to
examine the body 1.6 Terminology and Body Plan
Anatomical Anomalies – characteristics that differ Body Positions
from the normal pattern Anatomical Position – standing erect and palms
Physiology – scientific investigation of functions facing forward
Pathology – medical science, cause and Supine – upward Prone – downward
development of disease Directional Terms
Exercise Pathology – changes in function caused  Right and Left
by exercise  Superior & Inferior – higher & lower, head
 Cephalic and Caudal – head & tail
1.2 Structural and Functional Organization of  Anterior and Posterior – front & back
the Human Body  Ventral and Dorsal – belly & back
1. Chemical Level – chemical make-up
 Proximal and Distal – nearest & farther
2. Cell Level – basic unit of life
 Lateral and Medial – side and middle
3. Tissue Level – grp of same cells
 Superficial and Deep – external & internal
4. Organ Level – heart, lungs
Body Parts and Regions
5. Organ System – grp of organs
Central Region: head, neck trunk
12 Organ Systems in the Body:
Division of trunk:
i. Integumentary System
1. Thorax – heart and lungs
ii. Skeletal System
2. Abdomen – liver and stomach
iii. Muscular System
3. Pelvis – bladder and reproductive organs
iv. Nervous System
Upper Limb: arm, forearm, wrist and hands
v. Endocrine System
Lower Limb: thigh, leg, ankle and foot
vi. Respiratory System
4 quadrants of the abdomen:
vii. Digestive System
1. Right Upper and Lower Quad
viii. Lymphatic System
2. Left Upper and Lower Quad
ix. Male Reproductive System
9 regions:
x. Female Reproductive System 1. Left and Right Hypochondriac Region
xi. Cardiovascular System 2. Epigastric Region
xii. Urinary System 3. Hypogastric Region
6. Organism – considered as a whole 4. Umbilical Region
5. Left and Right Iliac Region
1.3 Characteristics of Life 6. Left and Right Lumbar Region
1. Responsiveness
Planes – imaginary flat lines
2. Growth 1. Sagittal Plane – right and left halves
3. Development 2. Median Plane – equal right and left halves
- Differentiation – change in cell structure 3. Transverse Planes – parallel and horizontal
- Morphogenesis – change in shape 4. Frontal Planes – coronal, front and back
4. Reproduction Longitudinal Section – length of the organ
5. Organization Transverse Section – right angle cut
Oblique Section – cut other than the right angle
6. Metabolism
Body Cavities
1.5 Homeostasis – constant environment in the Dorsal Body Cavity – cranial cavity and vertebral
body canal
Variables – changes in environment Ventral Body Cavity – internal organs called
Set point – ideal normal value in the body viscera
Thoracic Cavity – superior to the abdominopelvic
Normal Range – increase and decrease in set
1. 2 Pleural Cavities – lung and the ribs
point 2. Mediastinum – the heart, BV, trachea and
esophagus
Negative Feedback – maintains homeostasis,
deviation of the set point is smaller Abdominopelvic Cavity – in abdominal muscles
1. Superior abdominal cavity
2. Inferior Pelvic Cavity
Peritoneal Cavity – houses the organs in
AbdoPelCav
Serous Membranes of the VentBodCav
Serous Membrane – walls, in contact w/ surface of
the organs
Parietal Serous Membranes – walls of the cavities
Visceral Serous Membranes – covers the internal
organs
Thoracic Cavity Membranes
1. Pericardial Cavity – mediastinum, heart, space
between two pericardial memb, filled w/ pericardial
fluid
- Parietal Pericardium and Visceral Pericardium
2. Pleural Cavity – houses the lung, pleural fluid
- Parietal Pleura and Visceral Pleura
3. Peritoneal – houses many internal organs,
peritoneal fluid
- Parietal Peritoneum and Visceral Peritoneum
Mesenteries – double-folded ViscePeri, big belly
Retroperitoneal Location – peritoneal cavity side
only
Inflammation of serous membranes:
1. Pericarditis
2. Pleurisy
3. Peritonitis
Chapter 2. The Chemical Basis of Life
2.1 Basic Chemistry
Matter, Mass Weight
Matter – all living, nonliving things
Mass – amount of matter
Weight – gravitational force
Elements and Atoms
Elements – simplest type of matter
Atom – smallest particle of an element
Atomic Structure
Proton – one positive charge
Neutron – no electric charge
Electron – one negative charge
Nucleus – at the center of the atom
Electron Cloud – electrons moving around the
nucleus
Atomic Number and Mass Number
Atomic Number – equal to the number of protons
Mass Number - # of protons + # of neutrons
Isotopes and Atomic Mass
Isotopes – same atomic # but different mass
numbers
Dalton (da) – unified atomic mass, relative atomic
mass
Atomic Mass – mass of naturally occurring isotope
The Mole and Molar Mass
Avogadro’s Number – 6.022 x 10^23 = 1 mol
Molar mass – number of atoms
Electron and Chemical Bonding
Chemical Bonds – complete sharing
Electron Shells – concentric rings around the nuc
Valence Shells – outermost shell
Octet Rule – 8 rules
Electronegativity – ability of the nucleus to attract
electrons
Ionic Bonds – electron transfer
Cation – positive ion
Anion – negative ion
Covalent Bonds – shares 1 or more pairs of
electrons
Single Covalent Bond – one pair
Double Covalent Bond – two or more pairs
Nonpolar Covalent Bond – equally shared
electrons
Polar Covalent Bond – different electronegativities
Molecules and Compounds
Molecule – two or more atoms chemically bonded
Compound – chemical combi of two or more
different atoms
Molecular Mass – adding up the atomic masses
Intermolecular Forces – weak electrostatic
attractions of oppositely charged molecules
Hydrogen Bonds – polar CB have positive and
negative ends
Solubility and Dissociation
Solubility – dissolve
Dissociate – separate
Electrolytes – to conduct electricity, cat and anion
that can dissolve
Nonelectrolytes – does not conduct electricity
2.2 Chemical Reactions and Energy
Chemical Reaction
Chemical Reaction – compounds interact to form
or break
Reactants – enters the chemical reaction
Products – result of ChemReact
Synthesis Reactions – combine
Anabolism – collective term
Dehydration reactions – water is produced
Decomposition Reactions – breaking down
Catabolism – collective term
Metabolism – both anabolic and catabolic reaction
Hydrolysis Reactions – uses water
Reversible Reactions – can run on opposite
directions
Equilibrium – equal to the rate of reverse
reactions, equal
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions – losing and
gaining of electrons
Energy – capacity to do work
Potential Energy – stored energy
Kinetic Energy – actually doing work
Mechanical Energy – movement of an object
Chemical Energy – potential energy stored
Heat Energy – flows from one object to another
Speed of Chemical Reaction
Activation Energy – amount of energy to start
chemical reaction
Catalysts – increases the rates of chemical
reaction
Enzymes – catalysts
2.3 Inorganic Chemistry – do not contain carbon
Organic Chemistry – study of carbon-containing
substances
Water – polar covalent bond of hydrogen and
oxygen
Hydrophilic – attracted to water
Hydrophobic – opposite of hydrophilic
Cohesion – attraction of H2O to another H2O
Adhesion – attraction of H2O to different molecule
- For stabilizing body temp
- Protection
- Chemical Reactions
- Mixing Medium
Mixture – combi of two or more substances
Solute – dissolves in water
Solvent – dissolver
Suspension – separate from each other unless
blended together
Colloid – unevenly distribution of substance
Osmoles – amount of concentration
Osmolality – reflects the number, not the type
Acids and Bases
Acid – proton donor
Bases – proton acceptor
The pH scale – referring to the H+ concentration
Neutral Solution – equal concentration of H+ and
OH-
Alkaline – greater than H+ 7
Acidic – less than H+7
Acidosis – blood pH drops lesser than 7.35
Alkalosis – blood pH drops higher than 7.45
Salts – consisting of cation other than H+
Buffers – resist change in pH
Conjugate acid-base pairs – buffers
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Oxygen – two oxygen atoms, double covalent bond
Carbon Dioxide – one carbon atom + 2 oxygen
atoms
2.4 Organic Chemistry
Carbohydrates – carbon, oxygen, hydrogen
(1) for providing energy
(2) parts of other organic molecule
(3) bulk in feces
Monosaccharides – building block of carbo,
glucose, fructose
Isomers – same atom different 3D arrangements
Disaccharides – two monosaccharides,
dehydration reaction
Sucrose – glucose & fructose
Polysaccharides – long chains of
monosaccharides
Glycogen – multi-branched polysaccharide, energy
storage
Starch – energy-storage in plants
Cellulose – component of plant cell walls
Lipids – relatively soluble in water
Fats – major type of lipid,
Triglycerides – 95% of the fats in the body
Building Blocks of TriCerides:
1. Glycerol – 3-carbon molecule
2. Fatty Acids – straight chain of carbon atoms
Carboxyl group – oxygen atom in a hydroxyl
group
Saturation - # of hydrogen atoms
Saturated – single covalent bond
Unsaturated – double covalent bond
Monounsaturated fats - one double covalent bond
Polyunsaturated fats – two or more double
covalent bond
Trans Fats – saturated fats that has been
chemically altered
Phospholipid – bound to glycerol, plasma
membrane
Eicosanoids – regulatory molecules, important
chemicals from fatty acids e.g. prostaglandins
Steroids – four ring-like structure e.g. cholesterol,
proges and testosterone
Cholesterol – other steroids synthesize from it
Fat-soluble vitamins – essential for body functions
Proteins – carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen
covalently bonded
(1) regulate body processes (2) transport system
(3) protection (4) muscle contraction
Protein Structure
20 amino acids – building block of protein
Peptide Bonds – covalent bonds of amino acids
Primary structure – sequence of polypeptide
bond. Amino acid sequence
Secondary structure – folding or bending of
polypeptide chain
Denaturation – change in shape caused by
hydrogen bonds
Tertiary Structure – large-scale folding
Quaternary Structure – association of 2 or more
units
Enzyme – protein catalysts
Lock and Key Model – key binds to the lock
(active site)
Active site – binding site of reactants
Induced Fit Model – able to change shape
Cofactors – non-protein substance
Coenzymes – cofactors that are organic molecules
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA
Nucleic Acids – hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
phosphorus
Deoxyribonucleic Acid – genetic material,
structure of proteins
Ribonucleic Acid – related to DNA
Nucleotides – building block of DNA and RNA
Deoxyribose – monosaccharides of DNA
Ribose – monosacch for RNA
Nitrogenous Base – carbon and nitrogen
(pyrimidines = 1, purines = 2)
Complementary Base Pairs – bases held together
by hydrogen bonds
Antiparallel – nucleotide strand that lies side by
side
Gene – sequence of DNA base for RNA mole
Adenosine Triphosphate – for storing
providing energy
Chapter 3. Cell Biology
3.1 Function of Cells
1. Cell metabolism and energy use
2. Synthesis of molecules
3. Communication
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
3.2 How We See Cells
Light Microscope – to examine biopsy specimens
Electron Microscope – objects much smaller
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) –
beam of electrons passed
Scanning Electron Microscope – beams of
electrons reflected
Atomic Force Microscope – probe and sample,
SEM
3.3 Plasma Membrane – outer boundary of the
cell, separating intra and extracellular
and Membrane Potentials – change in electrical
charge
Lipids and Proteins = 45-50% Carbo = 4-8%
3.4 Membrane Lipids
Phospholipid Bilayer – lipids in the plasma
membrane
Hydrophilic – water loving heads
Hydrophobic – water fearing tails
Fluid-Mosaic Model – neither rigid nor static,
highly flexible PlasMemb
Cholesterol – also present in PlasMemb, limits the
movement
3.5 Membrane Proteins
Integral Membrane Proteins – penetrate deeply
Peripheral Membrane Proteins – surface of the
PlasMemb
Marker Molecules – allows cells to identify other
cells
Glycoproteins – carbohydrates and proteins
Glycolipids – carbohydrates & lipids
Glycocalyx – combination of the 2 above and
carbohydrates
Attachment Proteins – IntePro that helps attach
cell
Cadherins – cell to other cell
Adherins – cell to extracellular molecules
Transport Proteins – to move one side of the
PlasMemb to the other
(1) Specificity – binds to certain type of molecule
(2) Competition – similar shape binding
(3) Saturation – rate of movement
Channel Proteins – IntePro, tiny channel
Leak-ion channels – always open
Gated-ion channels – opens and close on specific
condition
Ligand – generic term for all signal molecules
Ligand-gated Ion Channels – responds to ligand
Voltage-gated Ion Channels – respond to change
in membrane potential
Cystic Fibrosis – genetic disorder that affects ion
channels
Carrier Proteins – transporters, one side of the
PlasMemb to the other
(1) Uniport – same molecule
(2) Symport – two different moles to the same
direction
(3) Antiport – two different moles to different
directions
ATP-powered Pumps – requires energy to move
ions
Receptor Proteins – has an exposed receptor
site
G-protein complex – located at the inner side of
PlasMemb
Enzymes – in membrane proteins
3.6 Movement through the Plasma Membranes
Selectively Permeable – only certain substances
flows through it
Vesicle – for transport, membrane-bound sac
Passive Membrane Transport – does not expend
metabolic energy
Diffusion – movement of solute from area of higher
concentration to lower concentration
Concentration Gradient – concentration
difference, solutes are unevenly distributed
Viscosity – lapot, resistance to flow
Osmosis – diffusion of water in a selectively
permeable
Aquaporins – channel proteins in water
Osmotic Pressure – force required to stop water
from moving
(1) Isomotic – same osmotic pressure
(2) Hyperosmotic – greater concentration
(3) Hyposmotic – dilute solution, lower pressure
Tendency of the Shell to Shrink:
(1) Isotonic – not shrink or swell
(2) Hypertonic – cell shrinking
(3) Hypotonic – cell swelling
Crenation – hypertonic solution in red blood cells
Facilitated Diffusion – mediated transport,
diffusion but inside and outside of the cell
Mediated Transport – proteins assist in moving
large water-soluble moles
Active Membrane Transport – expand metabolic
energy
Active Transport – mediated transport, requires
ATP
Secondary Active Transport – active transport of
ion out of the cell
Vesicular Transport – transport of larger volumes,
active transpo
Endocytosis – material moves through the plasma
membrane to the cytoplasm
(1) Phagocytosis – cell eating
(2) Pinocytosis – cell drinking
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis – either phago
or pino
Hypercholesterolemia – absence of low-density
lipoprotein
Exocytosis – release of material
3.7 Cytoplasm – loc is between the plasma memb
and nucleus, half cytosol and half organelle
Cytosol – fluid portion, colloid
Cytoskeleton – supports the cell and holds the
nucleus
(1) Microtubules – composed of tubulin, 25nm,
thickest
(2) Actin Filament – microfilaments, small fibrils,
8nm
(3) Intermediate Filaments – 10 nm, mechanical
strength
Cytoplasmic Inclusions – produced or taken in by
the cell
3.8 The Nucleus and Cytoplasmic Organelles
The Nucleus – membrane-bound, located centrally
Nucleoplasm – surrounded by the nuclear
envelope (2 membranes separated by a space)
Nuclear Pores – pore-like structure in the NucEnve
DNA – found within
Chromosomes – discrete structure of DNA and
proteins
Histones – important for structural org of DNA
Chromatin – delicate filaments in the nuke
RNA – can pass through the pores (mRNA, tRNA,
& rRNA)
Nucleolus – dense region around the nucleus
Ribosomes – important for protein synthesis, has
the rNA, produces the InteMembPro
Free Ribosomes – synthesize proteins used inside
Endoplasmic Reticulum – flattened sacs and
tubules
Cisternae – the flattened sacs and tubules
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – ribosomes are
attached
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – w/o
ribosomes, stores calcium and lipid manufacturer
Golgi Apparatus – cisternae that is stacked like a
dinner plate, for packaging and distributing
Secretory Vesicles – pinch-off from the golgi
apparatus, contents are released to the exterior
when the cell received a signal
Lysosomes – forms at the golgi apparatus, eats
cell org that are not functioning
Autophagy – self-eating
Proteasomes – large proteins that recycles and
breakdown other proteins in the cells
Peroxisomes – smaller than the lyso, has catalase
Mitochondria – provides the energy of the cell,
produces ATP
Cristae – in foldings of the inner membrane,
Matrix – located inside the inner membrane
Mitochondrial disease – x-linked, mutation in
mitochondrial genes
Centrioles and Spindle Fibers
Centrosomes – center of microtubule
Centrioles – inside the centrosomes and present in
mitosis
Spindle Fibers – microtubules that extends in all
direction from the centrosome
Cilia and Flagella
Cilia – capable of movement on the surface of the
cell
Dynein Arms – pairs of microtubules that push the
MT past each other
Basal body – located in the cytoplasm, modified
centriole
3.9 Genes and Gene Expression
Genes – for heredity
Heredity – transmission of genetic traits
Gene expression – production of RNA from DNA
Transcription – synthesis of 3 types of RNA based
on DNA info
Cytosine = Guanine
Uracil = Adenine (RNA) Thymine = Adenine (DNA)
RNA Polymerase – synthesizes the
complementary RNA
Promoter – DNA nucleotide sequence
mRNA – makes proteins in the ribosomes
- Exons – do code proteins
- Introns – do not code
pre-mRNA – contains introns
Posttranscriptional processing – modification
that produces mRNA
Poly-A tail – series of adenine nucleotides
Alternative Splicing – various combinations of
exons
Genetic Code – information in the mRNA
Codons – 3 nucleotide sequence
- Start codon – start of translation signal
- Stop codons – end of translation signal
Translation
tRNA – matching of specific amino acid to codon
- Anticodon – 3 nucleotides and
complementary
Polyribosome – clusters of ribosomes to the same
rNA
Proproteins – first made proteins, not final
Proenzyme – proproteins of enzymes
3.10 Cell Cycle
Cell cycle – change a cell, includes mitosis, and
cytokinesis
Interphase – almost life cycle of a cell
- G1 – first gap phase, routine metabolism
- S Phase – DNA replication
- G2 – preparation for division
DNA Replication – 2 strands of DNA molecule
separates
DNA Polymerase – adds 3 nucleotides to the end
Leading Strand – continuous strand
Lagging Strand – short segments called Okazaki
fragments (spliced by DNA ligase)
Diploid – number of body cells, 46
Haploid – number of sex cells, 23
Cell Division
(1) division of chromosomes
(2) division of cytoplasm
Mitosis – division of cell nucleus
- Mitotic Chromosomes – compact chromo
- Chromatid – copy attached at the
centromere
- Kinetochore – binds the centromere,
separates chromatid
(1) Prophase – chromatin to chromosomes,
centrioles migrate to the pole of the cell
(2) Metaphase – chromosomes to the center
(3) Anaphase – separation of chromatid, to the
opposite poles of the cell
(4) Telophase – nuclear envelope forms
Cytokinesis – division of cell cytoplasm, anaphase
to telophase
Cleavage Furrow – indent in the plasma
membrane
Apoptosis – programmed cell death
Necrosis – unprogrammed cell death
3.11 Cellular Aspects of Aging
(1) Cellular clock (4) Free Radicals
(2) Death genes (5) Mitochondrial Damage
(3) DNA damage
Chapter 4. Tissues
4.1 Tissues and Histology
Tissues – collection of cells
Extracellular Matrix – noncellular substances
surrounding the cells
Autopsy – postmortem examination of organs
4.2 Embryonic Tissues
13-14 days after fertilization
(1) Endoderm – inner layer, digestive tracts
(2) Mesoderm – middle layer, for muscles
(3) Ectoderm – outer layer
Neuroectoderm – ectoderm that becomes the
nervous system
Neural crest cells – rise of peripheral nerves
4.3 Epithelial Tissues – covers and protects
Characteristics:
(1) Mostly composed of cells
(2) Covers body surfaces
(3) Distinct tissue surfaces
- Basement membrane – tape that attaches
epithelial to other tissues
(4) Cell and Matrix connections
(5) Nonvascular
(6) Regeneration
Functions:
(1) Protects underlying structures
(2) Acts as a barrier
(3) Passage of substances
(4) Secreting substances
(5) Absorbing substances
Classification based on cell layers:
(1) Simple epithelium – single layer of cells
(2) Stratified epithelium – more than one layer
(3) Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium –
simple, layers of cell attached to the basement
membrane
(4) Transitional Epithelium – shape changes
Classification based on shape:
(1) Squamous – flat, scale-like
(2) Cuboidal – cube-shaped
(3) Columnar – taller than they are wide
Keratinized stratified squamous epi – primarily
on the skin, only in the deep layer
Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epi – moist,
mouth, pharynx, larynx, living cells in the deep and
superficial layer
Goblet cells – specialized columnar ep cells,
secreting mucus
Desmosomes – strong adhesive structure,
glycopro
Hemidesmosomes – half of desmosomes
Tight junctions – hold the cells together
Adhesion belt – found below the tight, glycol
Gap junctions – contact region between cells
Intarcalated disks – gap junctions in the heart
Glands – secretory glands
Exocrine – have ducts
Endocrine – no ducts (hormones)
Simple Glands – single, nonbranched duct
Compound Glands – multiple branched
Tubular – secretory regions shaped like tube
Acinar Alveolar – secretory regions that are sac-
like
Merocrine Secretion – release of product,
exocytosis
Apocrine Secretion – release products of pinched-
off
Holocrine Secretion – shedding of entire cells
4.4 Connective Tissue – makes up every organ
Functions:
(1) enclosing and separating other tissues
(2) Connecting tissues to one another
(3) Supporting and moving parts of the body
(4) Storing compounds
(5) Cushioning and Insulating
(6) Transporting
(7) Protecting
Cells of Connective Tissue
Osteoblast – forms, cartilage (chondro) and fibers
(fibro)
Osteocytes – maintains it
Osteoclasts – breakdown for remodeling
Adipocytes – large amount of lipids
Mast cells – important role in inflammation
White blood cells – move from BV into ConT
Macrophages – large phagocytic cells, type of
WBC
Platelets – hemopoietic cells that has enzyme
Undifferentiated mesenchymal cells – adult stem
cells, forms multiple cell types
Extracellular Matrix
(1) protein fibers (2) ground substances (3) fluid
Protein Fibers in the Matrix
Collagen Fibers – most abundant protein, strong
and flexible
Reticular Fibers – very short and thin
Elastic Fibers – protein elastin, ability to return
Ground Substances in the Matrix – gel-like
mixture of nonfibrous molecules
Hyalauronic acid – unbranched polysacc chain of
disacch
Proteoglycan Monomer – protein core to many
polysacc called glycosaminoglycans
Chondrotin sulfate – common glycosamino
Proteoglycan Aggregate – proteo monomers
attached to hyaluronic acids
Adhesive molecules – held the ProteoAggre
Chondronectic, osteonectin and fibronectin
Connective Tissue Classifications
Mesenchyme – embryonic connective tissue
Mucus Connective Tissue - CT in the umbilical
cord of a newborn
Connective Tissue Proper
Loose Connective Tissue – few protein fibers
(1) Areolar tissue – loose packing, attaches the
skin to underlying tissues
(2) Adipose tissue – consists of adipocytes
- Yellow adipose – appears white at birth, most
abundant
- Brown adipose – found in specific areas such as
axillae
(3) Reticular Tissue – framework of lymphatic
tissue
- Reticular cells – produce the reticular fibers
Dense Connective Tissue – large number of
proteins and fiber
Dense Regular Connective Tissue – has protein
fibers in one direction
Dense Collagenous Connective Tissue – has
collagen fibers
Dense Regular Elastic Connective Tissue –
collagen fibers and elastin
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue – protein fibs
in randomly oriented fibers
Dense Irregular Collagenous Connective Tissue
– dermis, tough portion of the skin
Dense Irregular Elastic Connective Tissue –
elastic arteries
Supporting Connecting Tissue
Cartilage – cartilage cells
Perichondrium – surrounds the cartilage
Lacunae – location of the carti
(1) Hyaline Cartilage – collagen and proteo, joints,
for support and flexibility
(2) Fibrocartilage – has more collagen, knee and
jaw
(3) Elastic cartilage – elastic fibers, w colla and
proteo, elastic ears
Bone – hard connective tissue
Hydroxyapatite – crystals composed of calcium
and phosphate
(1) Spongy Bone – spaces between trabeculae
and resembles a sponge
(2) Compact Bone – lamellae, stronger
Fluid Connective Tissue
Blood – a fluid
Hemapoietic Tissue – forms the blood cells, found
in the bone marrow
Yellow marrow – adipose, does not produce BC’s
Red marrow – reticular fibers produces BC’s
4.5 Muscle Tissue (CHAPTER 9)
4.6 Nervous Tissue – found in the brain
Neurons – cells of nervous tissue
(1) Cell body – contains the nucleus of neurons
(2) Dendrites – receives action potentials
(3) Axons – conducts action potential
Multipolar Neurons –many dendrites and 1 axon
bipolar Neurons – one dendrite and axon
Pseudo-unipolar Neurons – single, short process,
divides into two branches
Glia – support cells of the brain
4.7 Tissue Membranes – thin sheet of tissue that
lines a cavity
Mucous Membrane – cavities and canals, outside
of the body, consists of epithelial, basement
membrane and lamina propria (loose connective
tissue)
Mucus – viscous membrane protein
Serous Membrane – mesothe, BaseMemb and
lamina propria
Mesothelium – SimpSquaEpi
Serous fluid – lubricates the serous
Synovial Membrane – free movable joints
Synovial Fluid – hyaluronic acid, making the joint
slippery
4.8 Tissue Damage and Inflammation
Inflammation – response to tissue damage
Inflammatory Response – defense mech of the
body to inflammation
(1) redness
(2) heat
(3) swelling
(4) pain
(5) disturbed function
Chemical Mediators – released when injured,
histamins, prostaglandins
Edema – tissue swelling
4.9 Tissue Repair – substitution of viable cells
Regeneration – new cells are the same type
Replacement – new type develops
1. Labile Cells – divide throughout life
2. Stable Cells – do not normally divide,
regeneration in response to injury
3. Permanent Cells – do not replicate if killed,
replacement
Primary union – wounds are close together
Secondary Union – wounds are not close together
Fibrin – thread-like protein clot
Pus – mixture of dead cells and fluid Chapter 5. Integumentary System
Granulation tissue – form a scar at wound site 5.1 Functions of Integumentary System
Scar – dense irregular collagenous connective 1. Protection
tissue 2. Sensation
Wound contracture – disfiguring scars, 3. Temperature Regulation
granulation 4. Vitamin D production
5.Excretion
4.10 Effects of Aging in Tissue 5.2 Skin – made up of epidermis and dermis
Epidermis – superficial layer of the skin, stratified
Clinical Impact squamous, no blood vessels, composed of:
Carcinoma – cancer in EpiTis 1. Keratinocytes – cells of the epidermis, resist
Adenocarcinoma – from glandular epithelium abrasion and reduce water loss protein mixture
Sarcoma – rare type of cancer of mesodermal keratin (mixture of keratin fiber and keratohyalin),
tissue held by desmosomes
- Keratinization – keratinocytes move from the
inside to the surface
- Psoriasis – epidermal tissue sloughed off
2. Melanocytes – pigment melanin, gives color
3. Langerhans Cells – part of immune system
4. Merkel Cells – nerve endings, responsible for
detecting light touch

Stratum Basale – deepest portion, cuboidal or

columnar, held by hemidesmosomes
Stratum Spinosum – superficial to basale, 8-10
layers of many-sided cells
Lamellar Bodies – keratin fibers and lipid-filled
membrane bound organelles
Stratum Granulosum – 2-5 layers, diamond-
shaped cells, where keratinocytes die
Keratohyalin – presence of protein granules of
cytoplasm of keratinocytes
Stratum Lucidum – thin, clear zone above the
granulosum, dead keratinocytes
Stratum Corneum – last layer, 25 or more layers
of dead squamous cells joined by desmosomes,
consists of cornified cells (dead keratin, w/ hard
protein envelope)
Hard Keratin – keratin in the hair
Thick Skin – all five strata, palms hands, soles,
fingertips
Thin Skin – no lucidum, covers the rest of the body
Callus – subjected to friction, stratum corneum
thickens
Skin Color
Determines Skin Color:
1. pigments
2. blood circulating the skin
3. thickness of stratum corneum
Melanin – group of pigments. Skin, hair, and eye,
produced by melanocytes (irregular shaped cells,
between keratinocytes and to spinosum)
Melanosomes – vesicles where melanin is
packaged in
Racial variations of skin color:
1. types of melanin produced
2. amounts of melanin produced
3. size of melanosomes
4. number of melanosomes
5. distribution of melanosomes

Albinism – recessive genetic trait, inability to

produce tyrosinase (vital for making melanin)
Erythyma – increased blood flow in the skin
Cyanosis – decreased blood flow
Carotene – yellow pigment found in plants

Clinical Impact
Skin Cancer
Basal Cell Carcinoma – most common, basale,
varied appearance: open sores that bleed
Squamous Cell Carcinoma – spinosum, second
most common, wart-like growth, central depression,
lesions may bleed
Melanoma – most deadly type of skin cancer, black
or brown
Detection of Melanoma:
A – Asymmetry
B – Border irregularity
C – color
D – diameter greater than 6mm
E – evolving
Dermis – fibroblasts, few adipocytes,
macrophages, has BV, has nerve endings:
1. free nerve endings for pain
2. hair follicles for light touch
3. Pacinian corpuscles for deep pressure
4. Meissner corpuscles for stimulus
5. ruffini end organs for sensing continuous touch
Composition of dermis:
Papillary Layer – Dermal Papillae, loose
connective tissue
Friction Ridges – ridges shape overlying
epidermis into patterns
Reticular Layer – dense IR CT, main layer of the
dermis, w/ subcu tissue
Cleavage Lines – collagen fibers directed in this
direction, important for incision
Stretch Marks – overstretched tissue, scar
5.3 Subcutaneous Tissue – also called as
hypodermis, attaches the skin to bones and
muscles
Types of Injection:
1. Intradermal Injection – goes into the dermis
shallow angle
2. Subcutaneous Injection – subcu tissue,
achieved by pinching the skin to form a tent.
3. Intramuscular Injection – muscle deep, 90-
degree angle
5.4 Accessory Skin Structure
Hair – all mammals, dense and covers the body
(fur)
Lanugo – delicate, unpigmented hair of fetus
Terminal Hairs – pigmented hairs, near birth
Vellus Hairs – short, unpigmented, replace lanugo
Hair Structure
Shaft – above the surface of the skin
Root – below the surface
Hair bulb – base of root expanded
Medulla – central axis
Cortex – surrounds the medulla and forms the bulk
Hair Follicle – tube-like invagination of epiderm to
derm:
1. Dermal root sheath – surrounds the epiroot
2. Epithelial root sheath – divided into external
and internal
- External – all strata
- Internal – raise edges that mesh closely w/ raised
edges
Matrix – undifferentiated epithelial cells
Hair Papilla – dermis projects as the hair bulb
Hair Growth – hair increases in length as new
matrix cells are produced
Resting Period – new cycle, replace hair
Alopecia Areata – spot baldness, degrees of hair
loss
Hair Color – melanin production of melanocytes
Muscles
Arrector pili – smooth muscle, dermrooth sheath
to papillary layer of the skin
Glands
Sebaceous Glands – located at the dermis,
alveolar glands, sebum (oily substance, lipid)
Sweat Glands:
1. eccrine sweat glands – merocrine, common
type of sweat gland, simple tubular surface of the
skin
i. deep coiled portion – located at the dermis
ii. duct – passes to the skin surfaces
Sweat – hyposmotic fluid that leaves the duct
2. apocrine sweat glands – hair follicles to
sebaceous glands, axillae and genitalia
Other Glands
Ceraminous Glands – modified eccrine found in
the ear
Cerumen – earwax, combined secretion of
CeramiGland and SebaceGlands
Mammary Glands – modified apocrine in the
breast
Nails – thin plate, layers of dead stratum corneum,
distal end of the fingers
Nail root – covered by the skin
Nail body – visible portion
Nail fold – covers the lateral and proximal
Nail groove – holds the place of nail edges
Cuticle – corneum grows to the distal end
Hyponychium – free edge, thick nail
Nail Matrix – nail root extend distally
Nail Bed – loc is between nail matrix and hypony
Lunula – crescent-shaped area of the base of nail
Clinical Impact
Jaundice – yellowish skin color, excess bile
pigments
5.5 Physiology of the Integumentary System
Protection
Sensation
Temperature Regulation
Vitamin D production – regulation of calcium and
phosphorus homeostasis
Cholecalciferol – explosion to UV, precursor
molecule changed to this
Calcitriol – chemical messenger, travels the blood
Excretion
5.6 Burns – injury to a tissue caused by heat
Symptoms:
1. Tissue damage of skin and possibly deeper
tissue
2. Edema (swelling)
3. Shock
4. Microbial Infection
Treatment:
1. Intravenous fluids – IV
2. High-protein and caloric diet
3. Antimicrobials
4. Debridement
5. Skin Grafts
Rules of Nines – surface area that is burned
estimated
Partial Thickness Burns – first and second degree
burns
- First degree burns – only the epidermis
- Second degree burns – damage the dermis and
epidermis, 2 weeks of healing
Full Thickness Burns – 3rd degree burns,
epidermis and dermis are completely destroyed,
usually painless
Fourth Degree Burns – affect deeper than the
subcutaneous tissue up to the bone
Major Burn: 3rd degree burn, 10% of BSA
: 2nd degree burn, 25% of BSA, hands, feet,
genitals
Moderate burn: 3rd degree, over 2-10% of BSA Chapter 6. Skeletal System (Bones and Bone
: 2nd degree, 15%-25% of BSA Tissue)
Minor Burn: 3rd degree 2% of BSA, 2nd degree 6.1 Function of Skeletal System
less than 15% BSA 1. Body support
- Ligaments – fibrous CT, hold bones together
 Birthmarks 2. Organ protection
 Ringworms 3. Body Movements
- Tendons – connects muscle to bone
 Eczema and Dermatitis 4. Mineral Storage
 Frostbite 5. Blood Cell Production
 Psoriasis
 Vitiligo 6.2 Cartilage (hyaline, fibrocartilage, elastic)
Hyaline chondroblast – secretes a matrix that
 Bacterial Infections
surrounds it
 Viral Infections Chondrocyte – differentiated chondroblast by the
matrix
Lacuna – occupied by chondrocytes
Perichondrium – protective CT by carti
Articular Cartilage – covers the end of bones.
2 types of cartilage growth:
1. appositional – add new cartilage, to the outside
edge
2. interstitial – add more matrix

6.3 Bone Histology

Bone Matrix
Hydroxyapatite – calcium phosphate crystal
Bone Cells
Osteoblast – bone-building cells, produce collagen
and proteoglycans, secretes matrix vesicles
Ossification – formation of new bone by –blast
Osteocytes – from osteoblast, sufficient bone
matrix, 90-95% of bones, 25 years life span
Lacunae – housing of bone matrix
Canaliculi – cell extensions that are long and
narrow
Osteoclasts – bone destroying cells,
Bone Reabsorption – break down of bones
Podosomes – sealed compartment under the
osteoclast
Ruffled Border - -clast plasma membrane folded
form
Origin of Bone Cells
Osteochondral progenitor cells – stem cells that
can produce bone
Stem cell – mesenchymal cells

Woven Bone – 1st type of bone after ossification,

fairly weak
Lamellar Bone – matured bone made up of 3-7um
of lamellae
Spongy Bone – interconnecting rods and plates of
bone called trabeculae
Compact Bone – solid outer layer of the bone
Osteon – functional unit of long bone, concentric
rings of matrix
Central Canal – bull’s eye of the target,
surrounding it is the concentric lamellae
Circumferential Lamillae – outer surface of
compact bone
Interstitial lamellae – between the osteons
Perforating Canals – deliver blood to the centcan
to osteons

6.4 Bone Anatomy

Structure of Long Bone
Diaphysis – center portion of the bone
Medullary cavity – hollow center
Epiphyses – ends of LB
Articular cartilage – end that is covered by
HyaCarti
Epiphyseal plate – growth plate between epi and
dia
Epiphyseal line – when the bone stops growing
Red Marrow
Yellow Marrow 6.8 Bone Fracture Classification and Repair
Periosteum – CT membrane, outer surface Bone Fracture Classification:
Perforating Fibers – Sharpey fibers, colla and fibr 1. Mechanism of Fracture
penetrates the periosteum 1. Trauma
Endosteum – single cell layer of CT, within bones 2. Disease
Structure of Flat, short and Irregular Bone 3. periprostethic
Flat bones are spongy bones sandwiched in a 2. Soft-tissue damage
layer of compact bone 1. Closed
Short and Irregular – similar to epiphyses , no 2. Open
diaphyses 3. Displaced vs Nondisplaced
Sinuses – air-filled sacs of flat and IB 4. Fractures Pattern:
1. Linear Fracture
6.5 Bone Development 2. Spiral Fracture
Intramembranous ossification – starts at the 8th 3. Avulsion Fracture
week of the embryo and ends at 2 years of age 4. Stress Fracture
Centers of Ossification – where ossification 5. Compression Fracture
begins 5. Number of Fragments
Fontanels – soft spot in the developing skull. 1. Incomplete Fracture
Steps: 2. Complete Fracture
1. Osteoblast formation 3. Comminuted Fracture
2. Spongy Bone Formation 6. Age Specific
3. Compact Bone formation 1. Greenstick Fractures
2. Epiphyseal Fractures
Clinical Impact Bone Repair
Cleft Lip – maxillae did not form normally 1. Hematoma formation
Cleft Palate – palatine processes of the maxillae 2. Callus Formation
did not fuse 3. Callus Ossification
4. Bone Remodeling
Endochondral Ossification – begins at the end of
8th week, cartilage (end of 4th week) 6.9 Calcium Homeostasis
Steps: Parathyroid Hormone
1. Cartilage model formation Calcitrol
Cartilage model – bone-like shape Calcitonin
2. Bone collar formation
Bone collar – compact bone on the surface of 6.10 Effects of Aging
CartiModel
Calcified Cartilage – hydroxyapatite crystals
3. Primary ossification Center – produces bone
on the surface of the calcified carti.
4. Secondary Ossification center formation –
created in the epiphy
5. Adult Bone
Chapter 7. Skeletal Muscle Gross Anatomy
6.6 Bone Growth Reviewer
Growth in Bone Length 7.1 Skeletal Anatomy Overview
Growth at Articular Cartilage An average adult has 206 bones.
Growth in Bone Width Axial Skeleton – consists of skull, auditory
Endosteum – membrane lining the tunnel ossicles, vertebral and thoracic (middle)
Factors Affecting Bone Growth Number of bones in the skull: 22
Nutrition Associated w/ the skull: 7 Vertebral Column: 26
Vitamin D – absorption of Ca in intestines Thoracic Cage: 25
Rickets – insufficient D, bowed bones and inflamed Appendicular Skeleton – upper limbs and lower
joints limb and two girdles (belt; pectoral and pelvic)
Osteomalacia – adult rickets, softening of bones (lateral)
Vitamin C – collagen synthesizing of –blast Pectoral Girdle: 4 Pelvic Girdle: 2
Scurvy – C deficiency, ulceration and hemorrhage Upper limb: 28 Lower limb: 60
Hormones
Growth Hormone – from pituary gland, general Bone Shapes
tissue growth Long Bones – longer than wide, upper and lower
Thyroid Hormone – smaller individual if insufficient Flat Bones – thin, flattened & curved, skull & ribs
Reproductive Hormone – regulate bone growth Short Bones – round and cube-shaped, wrist
(estrogen and progesterone) Irregular Bones – does not fit to the other three,
facial bones
6.7 Bone Remodeling – bone is replaced by a new
bone Skeletal Terminology
Basic Multicellular Unit – temporary assembly of Tubercle – rounded projection
–clast and –blast Process – sharp projection
Foramen – the hole in which nerves and vessels
Mechanical ad Bone Strength pass
Sinuses – mucous membrane-lined air spaces
7.2 Axial Skeleton
Skull
 8 cranial and 14 facial bones
Cranium – protects the brain, connected by
sutures
4 types of sutures:
1. Coronal – frontal and parietal
2. Sagittal – two parietal
3. Lambdoid – occipital and parietal
4. Squamous – parietal and temporal, slight
movement
Calvaria – top of the skull that is being removed
Cranial Bones
1. Frontal Bone 4. Occipital Bone
2. Parietal Bones 5. Sphenoid Bone
3. Temporal Bones 6. Ethmoid Bone
1. Frontal Bone – connected to the 2 parietal
bones, forehead, has the frontal sinus
 Supraorbital foramen (notch) – passage of
BV and nerve for the eye
 Glabella – between the two orbits
 Anterior Cranial Fossa – supports the
frontal lobe of the brain
2. Parietal Bones (2) – joined by the sagittal
suture and lambdoid (occipital, sometimes
sutural bones forms along the lambdoid)
 Superior and Inferior Temporal Bone –
attached with temporalis muscle for chewing
3. Temporal Bones (2) – connected by the
squamous sutures, related to time
3 main regions:
1. Squamous part – meets the parietal
superiorly
 Zygomatic Process – SP to the zygomatic
bone
 Zygomatic arch – bridge on the side of the
skull, ZG + ZB
 Mandibular Fossa – oval-shaped fossa
inferiorly in the ZP
 Temporomandibular Joint Disorder
(TMJ) – inflammation in the joint
2. Tympanic Part – famous for external
acoustic meatus (transmits sound)
3. Petrous Part – center of the SPHB, thick,
rocky houses the mid and inner ears
 Anterior Cranial Fossa – contains the
temporal lobe of the brain
 Internal Acoustic Meatus – located
posteromedial of petrous , controls hearing
and balance
 Mastoid Processes – large bony inferior,
back of the ear, filled with mastoid air cells
(middle ear)
 Mastoiditis – infection in the MP
 Styloid Process – inferior of the petrous,
attachment site of tongue, hyoid and
pharynx, attachment site of muscles
 Stylomastoid Foramen – between the SP
and MP
 Jugular foramina – veins to carry away
blood
 Carotid Canals – major entry point for
blood delivery in the brain
 Thin plate bone – separates the CC from
the mid ear; allows us to hear our own
heartbeat
 Foramen Lacerum – noticeable opening in
the dried skull; between the PP and SPHB
4. Occipital Bone – skull’s posterior wall and
base
 Foramen Magnum – large hole, brainstem
connects to the spinal cord
 Posterior Cranial Fossae – supports the
cerebellum of the brain
 Occipital Condyles – side of the FM, point
of articulation for nodding “yes”.
 Hypoglossal Canal – anteromedial of OC,
tongue exits the skull
 Ligamentum Nuchae – nape of neck,
external occipital protuberance
 Nuchal Lines – points of attachments of
muscles in the neck
5. Sphenoid Bone – single bone, butterfly
4 parts of the SPHB:
1. Central Body – floor of cranial cavity,
saddle
 sella turcica, protects the pituary gland, the
saddle-like
1. Foramen Rotondum – for BV and nerves
2. Foramen Ovale – for BV and nerves
3. Foramen Spinosum – passage of
meningeal artery
 Sphenoid Sinuses – w/in the SPHB
 Optic Canal – each side of the SPHB,
anterior of the SeT
2. Greater Wings – floor of the middle
cranial fossa, skull wall and posterior wall of
the orbits
3. Lesser Wings – ridge on each side of
optic canals, separates the anterior and
middle cranial fossa.
 Superior Orbital Fissure – nerves
controlling the eye movement
4. Pterygoid Processes – extend inferiorly,
sites for muscles of mastication
6. Ethmoid Bone – sieve, fragile, forms the
nasal septum
 Ethmoidal sinuses or labyrinth –
ethmoidal air cells
 Crista Galli – rooster’s comb, superior ridge
 Cribriform Plates – sieve-like, houses two
olfactory bulbs for sense of smell
 Olfactory Foramina – olfactory nerves
entry point to the nasal cavity
 Perpendicular Plate – inferior of the EthB,
central, thin bony structure
 Septum – from PerP. Divides the nasal
cavity into left and right
 Superior and Middle Nasal Conchae –
two scroll-shaped bones in the EthB
 Inferior Nasal Concha – separate bone
Specialized Regions in the Skull
Cranial Fossae – depression when the calvaria is
removed:
1. Anterior Cranial Fossa – FrB, EthB, lesser wings
2. Middle Cranial Fossa – back of lesser wings to
petrous part, parietal (laterally)
3. Posterior Cranial Fossa – PetP, OcB, ParB
Paranasal Sinuses – found in FrB, EthB, SphB
and maxilla
Functions of Paranasal Sinuses:
1. Decrease the weight of the skull
2. Act as a resonating chamber when speaking
Orbits – cone-shaped fossae, eyes rotate w/ it
 Nasolacrimal Canal – carries tears from
the eyes to the NasCav
Nasal Cavity – rounded opening anteriorly, left and
right halves of nasal septum; the visible parts are
(1) 2 nasal bones,(2) maxilla.
Facial Bones
1. Zygomatic Bone 5. Nasal Bones
2. Maxilla Bones 6. Mandible
3. Palatine Bones 7. Vomer
4. Lacrimal Bones 8. Inferior Nasal Conchae
Alveolar Processes – sockets for tooth attachment
1. Zygomatic Bone – cheekbones, anterior of the
SphB
2. Maxillae (2) – upper jaw. Forms the (1) upper
jaw, (2) majority of the roof of the mouth, (3) center
portion
 Palatine Processes – in two maxillary
bones, forms the hard palate
 Incisive Foramen – posterior of the
incisors, passage of BV and nerve
 Anterior Nasal Spine – inferior to the
NasCav, two maxillae fuse
 Frontal Process – portion of the bridge of
the nose
 Infraorbital Foramen – passage for facial
nerve and artery
 Inferior Orbital Fissure – junction of the
max w/ greater wing of SphB
3. Palatine Bones (2) – have horizontal plates for
the posterior portion of the hard palate
 Vertical Plates – small portion of the orbit
and NasCav
4. Lacrimal Bones (2) – smallest in the skull,
where the nasolacrimal duct enters the
nasolacrimal canal
5. Nasal Bones (2) – frontal process of max, bridge
of the nose
6. Mandible – lower jaw, movable
 Mandibular Fossae – attaches to the
TempB
2 parts:
1. Body – loc of the chin, U-shaped
Ramus – branch, mandibular angle
- joins the temporal bone through
mandibular condyle
 Coronoid Process – anterior to the
ManCon
 Temporalis Muscle – for mastication
 Mental Protuberance – referred as the chin
 Mental Foramen – passage of BV and
nerves in the chin
7. Vomer – most posterior portion of NasSep and
mid PtePl of SphB in the NasCav
8. Inferior Nasal Conchae (2) – provide increased
surface are
Hyoid Bone – important for speech and
swallowing, no direct attachment, muscles and
tissues
Vertebral Column – has 26 bones called
vertebrae
5 major functions:
1. supports the weight and the trunk
2. protects the SpiCord
3. allows spinals nerves to exit
4. for muscle attachment
5. movement of the head and the trunk
5 regions of the vertebrae:
1. Cervical Vertebrae (7) – C1- C7
2. Thoracic Vertebrae (12) – T1 –T12
3. Lumbar Vertebrae (5) – L1-L5
4. Sacral Bone - S
5. Coccygeal – C
Four major curvatures (adult):
1. C1-C7 anteriorly
2. T1-T12 posteriorly
3. L1-L5 anterior
4. S & C posterior
Curvatures of an infant:
1. VC is C-shaped as a fetus
2. Secondary curve (anteriorly) after birth, C1-C7
3. When learned to sit and walk, L1-L5 anteriorly
Clinical Impact
Abnormal Spinal Curvatures
 Lordosis – convex curve of the L1-L5
 Kyphosis – hump back, concave curve of
the T-1-T12
 Scoliosis – lateral rotational curve of VC
General Features of the Vertebrae
1. Body 2. Vertebral Arch 3. Various Processes
Vertebral Body – solid bony disk
Vertebral Arch – protects the SpiCord
Vertebral Foramen – occupied by the SpiCord and
w/ VertArch
Vertebral Canal – SpiCord and cauda equina
Division of Vertebral Arch:
1. Pedicle – foot, attached to the body
2. Lamina – posterior portion of the VertFora
- Laminectomy – to relieve pain, compresses
spinal nerve root due to herniated intervertebral
disk, removes the lamina
Transverse Process – arch between the lamina
and pedicle
Spinous Process – junction between the laminae,
rounded projections
Intervertebral Foramina – loc where two vertebrae
meets, formed by intervertebral noches, spinal
nerves exit the SpiCord
Superior and Inferior Articular Processes –
SupPro articulating the InfePro of the next SupVer
Articular Facet – smooth, present in the SupArtPro
and InfArtPro
Invertebral Disk – separates the vertebrae,
composed of the fibrocartilage, provides support
and cushion, decreases when we age.
Annulus Fibrosus – external, becomes weaker
when we age and suspectible for hernia
Nucleus Pulposus – internal
Clinical Impact
Herniated Disk – breaking of annulus fibrosus,
may push the SpiCord and CaudEqui
Laminectomy
Hemilaminectomy – removal of the portion of the
lamina
Fenestration – removal of the nucleus pulposus
Regional Differences of the Vertebrae
Cervical Vertebrae – vertebral column region
Bifid Spinous Processes – in the CerVert
- Vertebral Prominens – spinous
processes located in the seventh
CerVert
Transverse Foramina – vertebral arteries extend
toward the end
2 parts of the CerVert (supports the weight of the
head):
1. Atlas (C1) – from the Greek God, large flattened
area called superior articular facets
- together with the OcciCon, “yes”
2. Axis (C2) – head rotation
- dens (odontoid processes) – process of axis
- “no” – when the atlas rotates on the axis
Whiplash – traumatic hyperextension of the
CerVert

Thoracic Vertebrae – support the thoracic cage,
longest spinous process, articular facets are found
in the first 10 T.
Lumbar Vertebrae – thickness of the bodies
affects the LumbVert
- The fifth lumbar or coccygeal may
merge to the sacrum
Sacrum – loc is between the two hip bones
- Five sacral vertebrae fuse during
adolescence resulting to 1 sacrum
- Transverse Lines – still visible
anteriorly
Auricular surfaces – articulates with the hip, forms
the sacroiliac joints
Alae – flare out like wings, lateral of the sacrum
Median Sacral Crest – the spinous process form a
ridge along the posteriomedial surface
Sacral Hiatus – opening in the inferior surface,
termination of vertebral canal
Sacral Canal – vertebral canal through the sacrum,
anesthesia injection site
Sacral Foramina – exit of nerves in the sacrum
Sacral Promontory – bulge, PelCav, clinical
landmark for separation of abdominopelvic cavity.
Coccyx – tailbone
-In males it projects anteriorly and in female project
inferiorly
- easily broken when a person falls down
Thoracic Cage – rib cage, protects the heart and
the lungs, can increase and decrease during
respiration
Consists of:
1. Thoracic Vertebrae
2. Ribs w/ their associated coastal cartilages
3. The sternum
Ribs and Costal Cartilage – 12 pairs of ribs
True ribs – ribs 1-7, attached directly through the
costal cartilage (flexible, expands during
respiration)
False Ribs – 8-12, not attached directly to the
sternum
Floating Ribs – 11-12, not attached to the sternum
Separated Rib – dislocation of the rib, painful,
most common to rib 10
- Head – articulates w the
intervertebral disks for two adjacent
vertebrae. (inferior articular facet)
- Tubercle – articulates w/ transverse
process
- Neck – between the head and
tubercle
- Body – main part of the rib
- Angle – located lateral to the
tubercle, weakest part
Cervical Ribs – transverse process of 7th CerVer
Sternum – sword-shaped, breastbone
3 parts:
1. Manubrium – sword handle
2. Body – blade
3. Xiphoid process – sword tip, no ribs attached
Jugular Notch – margin of manubrium, anterior
base of the neck
Sternal Angle – manubrium joins the body of the
sternum, felt at anterior thorax
7.3 Appendicular Skeleton
Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb
Pectoral Girdle: Scapula and Clavicle
Pectoral Girdle – composed of two bones that
connects to the upper limb: scapula and clavicle
 Scapula – shoulder blade, flat triangular
bone
- Base of the triangle, superior
border, faces superiorly
- Apex – inferiorly
Acromion Process – tip of the shoulder, scapula
3 functions:
1. protective cover to the shoulder joint
2. attachment site of the clavicle
3. attachment site for other muscle cells
Scapular Spine – AcrPro to posterior of the
scapula; divides the posterior part of the scapula:
1. infraspinous fossa – large
2. supraspinous fossa – small
Subscapular Fossa – deep anterior surface
Coracoid process – smaller, attachment for arm
and shoulder muscles
Glenoid cavity – superior lateral portion of the
bone
 Clavicle – collarbone, slight sigmoid (S-
curve)
Arm: Humerus
Humeral Head – w/ the glenoid cavity
Anatomical Neck – distal to the head, nonexistent
Surgical Neck – common fracture site
Prominent proximal end of the humerus:
1. Greater Tubercle – lateral
2. Lesser Tubercle – anterior
Intertubercular groove – between the greater and
lesser tubercle
Deltoid Tuberosity – site of attachment of deltoid
muscle
Capitulum – location where humerus articulates
the radius
Trochlea – location where the humerus articulates
with the ulna
Medial Epicondyle and Lateral Epicondyle –
attachment site of forearm and humerus
Coronoid fossa – accommodates portion of the
ulna, anterior distal end
Olecranon fossa – point of elbow, humerus
Forearm: Ulna and Radius
Ulna – medial, little finger
Trochlear Notch – c-shaped, rotates over the
trochlea
Coronoid Process – anterior proximal end of the
ulna
Olecranon Process – posterior proximal end
Radial Notch – medial proximal end of ulna
Styloid Processes – lateral distal end of ulna
Radius – lateral, thumb, also has styloid process
Head – articulates w/ the humerus
Supinates – palm up
Pronates – palm down
Radial Tuberosity – attachment of biceps brachii
Wrist: Carpals
- Composed of 8 carpal bones
arranged in two rows
Proximal Row:
1. Scaphoid – boat-shaped
2. Lunate – moon-shaped
3. Triquetrum – three-cornered
4. Pisiform – pea-shaped located laterally to the
triquetrum

Distal Row:
1. Hamate – hooked process of palmar side
2. Capitate – head-shaped
3. Trapezoid – resemblance to the trapezoid
4. Trapezium – named after trapezoid
Mnemonics:
Straight Line to Pinky, Here Comes The Thumb
Carpal Tunnel – tunnel anterior to the surface of
the wrist
Hand: Metacarpals and Phalanges
Metacarpal Bones – attached to the carpal bones
Digits – pollex (2 phalanges) w/ 4 other fingers (3
phalanges)
- Phalanges – small long bones of
the digits
Sesamoid Bone – form near the junction of the
proximal phalanx and metacarpal bones, small
bones with tendons
Clinical Impact
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome – ligaments does not
stretch, cutting the carpal ligament to cure
Edema – fluid build-up
Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb
Pelvic Girdle: Hip Bones and Sacrum
Pelvic Girdle – supports the lower limb
Hip Bones (2) – makes up the pelvic girdle
Pelvis – involves the coccyx and pelvic girdle
1. True Pelvis – opening is called Pelvic Inlet,
Inferior opening is the Pelvic Outlet
2. False Pelvis – overlying bone of true pelvis
3 bones that makes up the hip bones:
1. Ilium – largest among the 3
- Iliac Crest – superior border of ilium ends in
anterior and superior iliac spine
- Greater Sciatic Notch – posterior side of the
ilium, sciatic nerve passes
- Auricular Surface – joins the sacrum to form
sacroiliac joint
- Iliac fossa – depression in the ilium
2. Ischium – posterior than the pubis and has thick
ischial tuberosity
- Ischial Spine – site of ligament attachment
3. Pubis – anterior portion of the ilium
- Pubic Symphysis – thick pad of fibrocartilage
- Pubic Crest – abdominal muscle attachment
- Pubic Tubercle – end of PubeCrest, inguinal
ligament
- Obturator Fossa – point of fusion w/ ischium, few
BV and nerves pass through, covered by the liga
Acetabulum – center of hip socket, vinegar cup,
lower limb articulates the PelGir
Comparison of the Male Pelvis and the Human
Pelvis
Male Pelvis – more massive due to greater weight
and size
Female Pelvis – broader and larger, more rounded
pelvic inlet and outlet, for the fetus
Cesarean Section – pelvic outlet is too small
Thigh: Femur
Femur – head (articulates w/ acetabulum) and
neck, body
-Fovea Capitis – small indentation, secures the
femur to the acetabulum
Proximal Shift exhibits two projections:
1. Greater Trochanter – lateral to the neck,
smaller, bulge in the hip
2. Lesser Trochanter – inferior and posterior to the
neck
Smooth Rounded Projections (tibia):
1. Medial Condyle
2. Lateral Condyle
Ligament Attachment Sites (superior to the
condyle):
1. Medial Epicondyle
2. Lateral Epicondyle
Adductor Tubercle – muscle attachment site,
medial epicondyle
Gluteal Tuberosity – inferior to the lesser
trochanter, attachment site of the gluteal maximus
Linea Aspera – inferior to the GluTube, attachment
of thigh muscles
Patella – kneecap, large sesamoid bone,
articulates w/ patellar groove
Leg: Tibia and Fibula
Tibia – shinbone, larger than fibula
Fibula – bone in the leg, does not articulate w/ the
femur
Intercondylar Eminence – separates the anterior
and posterior
- Anterior and posterior cruciate
ligament is attached to the InConEmi
Tibial Tuberosity – point of attachment of
quadriceps femoris
Ankle – distal ends of the tibs and fibs, forming a
socket that articulates w/ the talus
Prominence in each side of the ankle:
1. Medial Malleolus 2. Lateral Malleolus
Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals and Phalanges
There are 7 tarsals:
1. Talus 5. Cuboid
2. Calcaneus
3. Navicular
4. Mid, Intermediate, lateral cuneiform
Mnemonics:
Tiger Cub Needs MILC
Metatarsals and Bones – arranged the same way
as metacarpal bones, w/ hallux
3 primary arches:
1. Two longitudinal arches – heel to the ball of
the foot
2. Transverse Arch – extend across the foot,
connection between the metatarsals, three
cuneiforms, and cuboid
Functions of the Foot:
1. To support the body in an upright position
2. Push the body forward