Notes - Structural Organisation in Animals

Structural Organisation
in Animals - I
© 2022, Aakash BYJU'S. All rights reserved

Key Takeaways
Epithelial Tissue 1
Simple
2 Connective Tissue
Compound
Loose
Nervous Tissue 3
Dense
Specialized
Muscular Tissue 4
Skeletal
Fluid
Summary
Level of Organisation
Tissue Organ Organ system

A group of similar cells along A system of tissues that A group of organs that work
with the intercellular work together on a larger together to perform
substances that perform a scale to do certain jobs common bodily functions
specific function is is an organ. is an organ system.
known as tissue.
Levels of
Cell Organism
organisation
Cell is the Organ systems An organism is a recognisable
fundamental unit of life. come together to form a and self-contained individual.
multicellular organism.

Animal Tissues
Animals with tissue systems or a higher level of organisation

are all made up of the four basic types of tissues.
Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Nervous tissue Muscular tissue
Epithelial cells
Epithelium
Blood
capillary Intercellular space
Tissue on which the

Basement
epithelium rests
membrane
Nucleus

Epithelial Tissue
● It is commonly known as epithelium. ● It has a free surface.

● It is a large sheet of cells that forms the ● Epithelial cells are arranged compactly
lining of all the body surfaces. with little intercellular spaces.
● These cells rest on a non-cellular basement ● Generally, they are avascular and do not
membrane which is made up of have blood vessels.
○ Basal lamina - upper thin layer
○ Reticular lamina - lower thick fibrous
layer
Outside environment Fluids or free surface
Epithelium Epithelium
Basement membrane Basement membrane
Other body tissue Other body tissue

Epithelial Tissue
Simple Compound
● Single layer of cells ● Two or more layers of cells

● Lining for body cavities, ducts, and tubes ● Protective function
● Example: Alveolar cells ● Example: Cheek cells
Squamous
Cuboidal Stratified
Columnar
Pseudostratified Transitional

Simple Epithelial Tissue
Squamous Cuboidal
● It is also known as pavement epithelium. ● It appears cuboidal in vertical sections

● It is the layer of thin flat cells with and polygonal from the surface.
prominent nuclei. ● It has circular nuclei.
● It has flattened cells with irregular ● It participates in secretion, absorption,
boundaries. and excretion.
● It forms the diffusion boundary. ● It lines small salivary and pancreatic
● It occurs in the alveoli of lungs, lining of ducts with thyroid follicles.
the blood, and lymph vessels.
Cuboidal in
Squamous cell vertical section
Basement
membrane Basement
membrane

Cuboidal
● Cuboidal epithelium bears microvilli in absorptive regions on their free ends.

● They give a brush-border appearance and hence called brush-bordered epithelium.
● They are found in proximal tubules of kidney.
Microvilli
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Mitochondrion

Columnar Pseudostratified
● Appear column-like in vertical section. ● It is a single layer of columnar cells.

● Nucleus usually located near the base. ● It appears to be double layered due to
● Lines the stomach and the inner layer different sizes of cells.
of small intestine. ● Nuclei are present on different levels.
● Increases surface area for absorption. ● Shorter cells lack cilia and secrete mucus.
● Longer cells are ciliated and propel the
mucus and the particle towards the larynx.
Tall
columnar cell
Nucleus
Nuclei at
Basement different
membrane levels
Basal cell

Cuboidal and columnar epithelium can specialize into 2

distinct types, besides their normal form
Ciliated Glandular
● Type of cuboidal or columnar ● Cuboidal or columnar cells

epithelium bearing cilia ● Specialised for secretion
● Composed of a single layer ● They can be
of cube-like cells ○ Unicellular: Consisting of isolated
● Commonly found in inner glandular cells - Goblet cells of
surface of hollow organs alimentary canal
like bronchioles and fallopian tubes. ○ Multicellular: Consisting of cluster of
● Main functions is to move particles cells - Salivary glands
or mucus in a specific direction
Types of Glands
Types of glands
Duct
Exocrine
● Presence of ducts Exocrine cell
● Secretes cell products like mucus, Secretory
product Duct
saliva, oil, milk, digestive enzymes
● Example: Salivary glands,
mammary glands, sebaceous
glands, etc.
Blood flow
Endocrine Endocrine cell
Hormone
● Ductless
● Secretes hormones
● Example: Testes, pancreas, Blood vessel
Cells pouring secretion
pituitary glands, ovaries, etc. into blood vessel

Types of Glands
Holocrine Apocrine Merocrine
● Product of secretion is ● Only the apical portion ● Secretory cells leave the
shed with the whole of the cytoplasm is cell by exocytosis with
cell leading to its discharged along with no loss of other cellular
destruction the secretory product material
● E.g. - Sebaceous glands ● E.g. - mammary glands ● E.g. - the pancreas
Holocrine Apocrine Merocrine
Disintegrating Secretory
cell and its product
released Pinched off
contents apical portion Intact cell
of cell
Mitotic
divisions to
replace cells
Compound Epithelial Tissue
● This epithelial consists of more than one layer of cells.

● Only the deepest layer rests on the basement membrane.
● They provide protection to underlying tissues against mechanical,
chemical, thermal or osmotic stresses.
Types
Stratified epithelial tissue Transitional epithelial tissue
● ‘Stratum’ means layer. ● The cells are thinner and more elastic when
● It consists of more than one layer of cells. compared to stratified epithelium cells.
● It provides protection to underlying tissues ● 4-6 Layer of cells
under stress conditions. ○ Innermost layer of cells - cuboidal
● It is the deepest layer formed by columnar or columnar
cells. ○ Middle layer of cells - pear-shaped
○ Surface cells are large and oval-shaped
● The superficial cells can vary from squamous
to cubicle.
Compound Epithelial Tissue
Stratified epithelial tissue Transitional epithelial tissue
● Stratified non-keratinised squamous epithelium ● It lines the surface of the urinary bladder
covers moist surfaces like buccal cavity, pharynx and ureters.
and oesophagus.
● It allows considerable extension of these
● Stratified keratinised squamous epithelium organs to accommodate urine.
covers the dry surface of skin.
● In keratinised epithelium, heavy deposits of
keratin (insoluble protein) in the dead superficial
cells makes the epithelium impervious to water.
Normal Large
oval cells
Multicellular cell
Basement Stretched
membrane
Intercellular Junctions
Tight Gap
Adhering
(Zonula occludens) (Macula adherens)
Tight junctions stop Adhering junctions cement Gap junction facilitate cell
substances from leaking across neighboring cells together communication by movement
the tissue of ions and molecules between
adjacent cells
Plasma
membranes
Interlocking of adjoining
junctional cells
proteins
Plasma Channel
Plasma between
membranes membranes
of adjoining cells
of adjoining
cells cells

Connective Tissue
● They are the tissues that link and support different tissues and organs in the body.
● The characteristics of connective tissues are as follows:
○ They are the most abundant tissue of the body.
○ They are generally vascular.
Secretion of connective tissues
Structural proteins Modified polysaccharides

Provide strength, elasticity, • Accumulate between cells and
and flexibility
structural proteins
• Act as a matrix or a ground
substance
Collagen Elastin
• Present in bones, • Found in the skin
muscles, tendons • Elastic in nature
• Collagen fibres of • Elastin fibres are branched
collagen are unbranched

Connective Tissue
Types of connective tissues
Specialised connective
Loose connective tissue Dense connective tissue
tissue
Areolar Adipose Dense Dense Skeletal Fluid

regular irregular
Bone Blood
Tendon
Cartilage Lymph
Ligament

Loose Connective Tissue
● It is a binding tissue that holds organs and other tissues together.

● It consists of loosely arranged cells and fibres.
● The components are embedded in a semifluid matrix.
Areolar Adipose
Fat storage area

Adipose
Macrophages tissue Nucleus
Fibroblasts Plasma
membrane
Mast cell
Layer of the skin

Loose Connective Tissue
Areolar Adipose
● Most widely distributed in animal body ● Contains large, spherical or oval cells
● Present beneath the skin called fat cells or adipocytes.
○ Cytoplasm and organelles in this are
● Joins skin to muscles
pressed by fat into a narrow annular
● Found around muscles, blood vessels layer just beneath plasma
and nerves membrane
● Three types of cells: ● Present beneath skin, around kidneys,
○ Fibroblasts - principal cells, secrete mesentery and bone marrow
major amount of matrix
● Synthesises, stores and metabolises
○ Macrophages/Histiocytes -
fat
phagocytic in nature
○ Serves as fat reservoir, shock
○ Mast cells/Mastocytes - irregularly
absorber and insulator
ovoid cells containing basophilic
granules which contain histamine,
heparin and serotonin

Dense Connective Tissue
● The cells and fibres of the dense connective tissue are compactly arranged.
Regular Irregular
● Collagen fibres are present in rows ● Fibroblasts and various types of fibres
between many parallel bundles of (mostly collagen) are oriented
fibres irregularly.
● They form the principal components ● This tissue is present in the skin.
of ligaments and tendons.
○ Tendons consist of parallel
bundles of collagen fibres
○ Ligaments consist of collagen
fibres arranged in bundles with
fibroblasts present in rows
between bundles along with
elastin fibres.

Specialized Connective Tissue
Skeletal connective tissue
● Extracellular ground substance is solid

● Forms the endoskeleton of vertebrates which:
○ Supports the body
○ Protects various organs
Cartilage ○ Helps in locomotion Bone
● Flexible connective tissue ● Hard and non-pliable connective tissue

● Keeps the motion of the joint fluid ● Ground substance is made up of calcium
● Helps in maintaining the smoothness in salts and collagen fibres
movements of the joints by coating the ● 70% inorganic matter, 30% organic matter
surfaces of the bones in our joints and by ● Decalcifies in HCL, unaffected in KOH
cushioning bones against impact.
● In vertebrates, most cartilages in the
embryo stage are replaced by bones in the
adult stages

Skeletal Connective Tissue
Cartilage
Structure Location
● Matrix - solid, pliable, resists compression ● Nasal septum
○ Produced and maintained by cartilage cells ● Epiglottis
● Fluid filled spaces called lacunae are present ● Tip of nose
● Contain cartilage-forming cells called chondrocytes ● Outer ear joints
● Between adjacent bones
Function of the vertebral column
● Provides support and flexibility to body parts ● Limbs and hands in adults
● Resists compression
● Smoothens surface at joints
○ Hence, prevents wear and tear of bones due to friction

Bone
Structure Function
● Matrix - very hard and non pliable ● Provides structural
○ Due to presence of calcium phosphate, calcium framework to body
carbonate and salts like ossein and collagen fibres ● Supports and protects tissues
○ Arranged in form of layers called lamellae and organs such as brain,
lungs etc.
■ Ring shaped fluid filled spaces called lacunae
● Provides surface for
present in them.
attachment of muscles
■ Lacunae contains osteocytes
● Helps in locomotion and
● Long bones have bone marrow cavity movement
○ Filled with soft and semisolid fatty tissue - bone ● Storage site of calcium and
marrow phosphate
■ Site of production of blood cells

Location
● Endoskeleton of adults
vertebrates

Bone
Compact Spongy
● It forms the dense outer layer of the ● Open lattice of bone present at the ends
bones. of the long bone (epiphysis)
○ Hence, also called cancellous bones
● It is composed of many longitudinal,
column-like structures called Haversian ● Contains red bone marrow where blood
systems. cells are formed
○ Several concentric layers (lamellae) of ● Consists of a network of many fine
bony matrix encircle a longitudinal irregular bony plates or trabeculae
central Haversian canal.
● Haversian canals are connected by
Volkmann canals.
● Marrow cavity of long bones contain fatty
yellow bone marrow in adults.

Types of bones
Cartilage bones Membrane bones Sesamoid bones Visceral bones

● Also called ● Also called dermal ● Formed by the ● Formed in
endochondral or or investing bone ossification of the visceral/soft organs
replacing bones tendons in some species of
● Formed in dermis
● Formed by of the skin ● E.g. - patella animals
replacement of ● E.g. - os cordis, os
● E.g. - skull bones,
cartilage by the bone falciparum, os penis
clavicle
● Chondroclasts
dissolve cartilage
for replacement
● E.g. - Humerus,
femur, vertebrae, ribs

Fluid Connective Tissue
● Made of ● Help in transportation of

○ fibre free fluid matrix nutritive elements, gases,
○ specialised living cells excretory products, hormones
■ Can’t divide or secrete matrix
Types of fluid connective tissue
Blood Lymph

Fluid Connective Tissue
WBCs/Leukocytes
● Rounded or irregular in shape
● Able to change shape and amoeboid
movement
● Capable of diapedesis
RBCs
● Oval shaped, biconcave, nucleated in

Components of most vertebrates
blood ● In mammals, they are circular,
biconcave, disc-like and lack nuclei
Platelets
● Also called thrombocytes

● Minute, non-nucleated, round or
biconvex
Plasma

Nervous Tissue
● Develops from the ectodermal tissue. ● Controls all body activities

● Conducts nerve impulses from one ● Coordinates various body parts and
part to another part of the body functions
● Forms brain, spinal and nerves
Types of nervous tissue
Neurons Neuroglial tissue
● Basic structural and functional unit ● Neuroglial cells provide support

of neural tissue is neuron cells around brain, spinal cord, and
● Excitable cells ganglions
● They are also known as nerve cells ● Glia = glue
● Ganglions are group of neurons ● Also known glial cells
● Neurons are linked together

Nervous Tissue
Parts of neurons
Cyton/Cell body Dendrites Axon Synapse
● Consists of a central ● Short and branched ● Single cylindrical ● Axon terminal is very
nucleus and processes arising projection emerging closely placed to the
cytoplasm from the cyton from cyton dendrite of the other
● Contains ● Carry impulses ● Axon ends in axon neuron to transfer
characteristic Nissl’s towards cyton ending (terminal impulses
granules which stain arborizations) ● This zone is called
deeply ● Carries message away synapse
● They are large, from cyton ● Neurotransmitters
irregular masses of ● Surrounded by a transfer signal at
ribosomes and RER sheath (Neurilemma) synapse
of neuroglial cells
called myelin sheath
● Myelin sheath is
interrupted at nodes
of ranvier
Nervous Tissue
Diagram of a neuron
Dendrites Nucleus
Axon terminal
Axon
Nodes of
Ranvier
Synaptic knob
Schwann Myelin sheath
cells
Cell body

Nervous Tissue
Types of neurons
Unipolar Bipolar Multipolar Pseudounipolar Apolar
● One ● One axon ● One long axon ● Bipolar but ● Primitive

axon/dendrite and one and multiple appear unipolar neurons which
● Found in early dendrite dendrites ● Single process first appeared
embryos ● Found in ● Very common divides into in cnidarians
olfactory ● Found in brain dendrite and ● Undefined
epithelium and spinal cord axon polarity
and retina ● Found in dorsal
of eye root ganglion
of the spinal
nerve

Nervous Tissue
Types of glial cells
Astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Schwann cells Microglial cells
● Large in size with ● Form an ● Form an ● Mesodermal in

number of insulating layer insulating layer origin
protoplasmic called myelin called myelin ● Small in size
processes sheath around sheath around
axon of neurons axon of neurons ● Feathery-
● Form maximum processes
number of glial in CNS in PNS
cells ● Have few ● Lipid rich layer ● Help in
protoplasmic phagocytosis
● Help in nervous
tissue repair processes
● Form blood-brain
barrier
Muscular Tissue
● Made up of long, cylindrical fibres ● Aid and control movements

arranged in a parallel fashion ● Contract and relax to generate
● Muscle fibres consist of fine fibrils movement in response to stimulus
known as myofibrils
Types of muscle tissues
Skeletal muscle tissue
● Closely attached to the skeletal bones

● Muscle fibres are striated
● Fibres are bundled together in a parallel
fashion
● Sheath of tough connective tissue encloses
several bundles of muscle fibre
● Multinucleated, voluntary in nature
● Found between bones
Muscular Tissue
Smooth muscle tissue
● Striations are absent
● Fibres tapers at both ends (fusiform shape)
● Cell junction holds cell together
● Fibres are bundled together in connective

sheath
● Uninucleated, involuntary in nature
● Found in stomach, intestine, uterus, etc.

Muscular Tissue
Cardiac muscle tissue
● Contractile tissue
● Present only in the heart
● Cell junctions cause the fusion of plasma

membrane of adjacent cells
● At some places, intercalated discs

(communicated junctions) are formed at the
fusion points
● Allows the cells to function in a coordinated

manner
● Unstriated, uninucleated and involuntary

Summary
Epithelial tissue
Simple Compound
● Single layer of cells ● Two or more layers of cells

● Lining for body cavities, ● Protective function
ducts, and tubes ● Example: Cheek cells
● Example: Alveolar cells
Squamous Stratified
Cuboidal Transitional
Columnar
Pseudostratified
Summary
Types of glands Intercellular junctions
Exocrine
Tight
● Presence of ducts (Zonula occludens)
● Secretes cell products like mucus,
saliva, oil, milk, digestive enzymes
● Example: Salivary glands,
mammary glands, sebaceous
glands, etc. Adhering
Endocrine
● Ductless
● Secretes hormones Gap
● Example: Testes, pancreas, (Macula adherens)
pituitary glands, ovaries, etc.
Summary
Types of connective tissues
Loose connective tissue Dense connective tissue Specialised connective

(Loosely arranged) (Compactly arranged) tissue
Cartilage
Areolar Tissue
Regular tissue (Flexible connective
(Supports framework for
(Parallel bundled) tissue)
epithelium)
Bone
(Hard and non-pliable)
Irregular tissue
Adipose Tissue
(Oriented irregularly, Blood
(Helps in storage of fat)
found in skin) (Fluid connective tissue)

Summary
Bone Cartilage
Composed of tough inflexible Composed of firm but flexible

material called ossein material called chondrin
Matrix occurs in concentric lamellae Matrix occurs in homogeneous mass
Chondroblasts produce new

Osteoblasts produce new osteocytes
chondrocytes
Osteocytes are present in the Chondrocytes are present in the
lacunae lacunae
Provides support and flexibility Provides structural framework to

to body parts body and protection to organs

Summary
Dendrites
Parts Cyton
Neurons
Axon
Basic structural and
functional unit of
Neural tissue
Synaptic knob
neural tissue is neuron
Astrocytes
Types Schwann cells

Neuroglial cells
Oligodendrocyte
Glial cells provide support
cells around brain, spinal Microglia
cord, and ganglions
Summary
Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle
Occurs in the posterior

Occur in the limbs, body Occurs in the walls of
part of oesophagus,
wall, face, neck etc. heart
urogenital tract, iris etc
Cylindrical in shape Spindle shaped Cylindrical in shape
Multinucleated Uninucleated Uninucleated
Voluntary in nature Involuntary in nature Involuntary in nature
Intercalated discs are Intercalated discs are Intercalated discs are

absent absent present
Striated Unstriated Unstriated

Notes - Structural Organisation in Animals

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Structural Organisation

© 2022, Aakash BYJU'S. All rights reserved

Tissue Organ Organ system

© 2022, Aakash BYJU'S. All rights reserved

Animals with tissue systems or a higher level of organisation

Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Nervous tissue Muscular tissue

Tissue on which the

© 2022, Aakash BYJU'S. All rights reserved

● It is commonly known as epithelium. ● It has a free surface.

Outside environment Fluids or free surface

Basement membrane Basement membrane

Other body tissue Other body tissue

● Single layer of cells ● Two or more layers of cells

© 2022, Aakash BYJU'S. All rights reserved

● It is also known as pavement epithelium. ● It appears cuboidal in vertical sections

© 2022, Aakash BYJU'S. All rights reserved

● Cuboidal epithelium bears microvilli in absorptive regions on their free ends.

© 2022, Aakash BYJU'S. All rights reserved

● Appear column-like in vertical section. ● It is a single layer of columnar cells.

© 2022, Aakash BYJU'S. All rights reserved

Cuboidal and columnar epithelium can specialize into 2

● Type of cuboidal or columnar ● Cuboidal or columnar cells

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Holocrine Apocrine Merocrine

Holocrine Apocrine Merocrine

● This epithelial consists of more than one layer of cells.

Stratified epithelial tissue Transitional epithelial tissue

Stratified epithelial tissue Transitional epithelial tissue

© 2022, Aakash BYJU'S. All rights reserved

Secretion of connective tissues

Structural proteins Modified polysaccharides

© 2022, Aakash BYJU'S. All rights reserved

Types of connective tissues

Areolar Adipose Dense Dense Skeletal Fluid

© 2022, Aakash BYJU'S. All rights reserved

● It is a binding tissue that holds organs and other tissues together.

Fat storage area

Layer of the skin

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© 2022, Aakash BYJU'S. All rights reserved

© 2022, Aakash BYJU'S. All rights reserved

Skeletal connective tissue

● Extracellular ground substance is solid

● Flexible connective tissue ● Hard and non-pliable connective tissue

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© 2022, Aakash BYJU'S. All rights reserved

■ Site of production of blood cells

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© 2022, Aakash BYJU'S. All rights reserved

Cartilage bones Membrane bones Sesamoid bones Visceral bones

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● Made of ● Help in transportation of

Types of fluid connective tissue

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● Oval shaped, biconcave, nucleated in

● Also called thrombocytes

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● Develops from the ectodermal tissue. ● Controls all body activities

Neurons Neuroglial tissue

● Basic structural and functional unit ● Neuroglial cells provide support

● Neurons are linked together

Cyton/Cell body Dendrites Axon Synapse

© 2022, Aakash BYJU'S. All rights reserved