1.

03 The Tissues and The Integumentary System

Dr. Ma. Luisa Crisostomo || September 2022
ANPH111
Transcribers: Kath Venus

OUTLINE Tissue with a high degree of

I. TERMINOLOGIES
II. TISSUES AND HISTOLOGY
III. THREE LAYERS OF A CELL
IV. FOUR BASIC TYPES OF TISSUES
V. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
VI. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
VII. MUSCLE TISSUE
VIII. NERVOUS TISSUE
IX. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
I. Terminologies
Type of loose connective
Adipose tissue
tissue dominated by fat cells
Type of loose connective
Areolar tissue tissue that lies beneath
almost all epithelia
Chondrocytes Cartilage-forming cells
Epithelial tissue composed
Columnar epithelium of cells having a tall,
columnar shape
The most widespread, and
the most varied, of all the
tissues. It serves
Connective tissue
to connect the body together
and to support, bind, or
protect organs
Epithelial tissue consisting of
Cuboidal epithelium cells having a cube-like
shape
A gland that secretes its
product, called a hormone,
Endocrine gland
directly into the
bloodstream
The layer of cells forming the
epidermis of the skin and the
Epithelium surface layer of
mucous and serous
membranes
A gland that secretes its
product into a duct, which
Exocrine gland then empties onto a
body surface or inside a
body cavity
Cells that secrete collagen,
Fibroblasts which forms scar tissue
inside a wound
The repair and replacement
of damaged tissue with
Fibrosis
connective tissue, mainly
collagen
Type of epithelium
Glandular epithelium
consisting of glands that
secrete a particular
substance
Modified columnar cell
containing secretory vesicles
Goblet cell
that produce large
quantities of mucus
Newly formed tissue inside a
Granulation tissue
wound
Epithelial membrane that
lines body surfaces that
Mucous membrane
open directly to the body’s
exterior
Tissue consisting of
contractile cells or fibers that
Muscle tissue
effect movement of an
organ or body part
excitability and conductivity
Nervous tissue
that makes up
the nervous system
Osseous tissue Bone tissue
Osteocytes Bone-forming cells
Tissue consisting of a loose
network of reticular fibers
and cells; forms
Reticular tissue
the framework of the spleen,
lymph nodes, and bone
marrow.
Membrane composed of
simple squamous epithelium
resting on a
thin layer of areolar
Serous membrane connective tissue; lines
some of the closed body
cavities and also
covers many of the organs in
those cavities
Epithelial tissue consisting of
Squamous epithelium
thin, flat cells
Specialized cell that can
Stem cell differentiate into many
different types of cells
Groups of similar cells that
Tissue
perform a common function
II. Tissues and Histology
A. Tissues
 were made from specialized cells that were made
during development and intended to group together to
perform specific functions
B. Histology
 The science that deals with the study of tissues
C. Pathologist
 is a physician who examines tissues for changes that
may indicate damage or disease
D. Differentiation
 While cells continue to divide, they also form distinct
properties through this process
III. Three layers of a Cell
A. Ectoderm
• Outer layer
B. Mesoderm
• Middle layer
C. Endoderm
• Inner layer

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[ANPH111] 1.03 The Tissues and The Integumentary System
IV. Four basic types of Tissues A. Classification of Epithelial Tissue
A. Epithelial Tissue Based on CELL SHAPE
• covers body surfaces, forms glands, and Thin and flat cells that allow
lines body cavities, hollow organs, and ducts. Squamous
diffusion and filtration
Cube-shaped cells that may
B. Connective Tissue have microvilli at their apical
Cuboidal
• protects and supports the body and its surface for
organs, binds organs together, stores energy secretion or absorption
reserves as fat, and provides immunity. Tall and thin cells that may
have microvilli or cilia at their
C. Muscular Tissue Columnar
apical surface
• generates the physical force needed to make for secretion and absorption
body structures move. Change shape from flat to
cuboidal and back. These
D. Nervous Tissue Transitional cells are found in
• detects changes inside and outside the body organs that can stretch like
and generates transmits nerve impulses that the urinary bladder.
coordinate body activities to help maintain
homeostasis. Based on CELL LAYER
has only one layer of cells
V. Epithelial Tissue and primary function is to
Simple epithelium
move
 Epithelial tissues covers body surfaces, forms glands,
materials
and lines body cavities, hollow organs, and ducts and
perform several functions such as: has a single layer but
appears to have many due
Pseudostratified
1. It protects underlying structures. to
epithelium
a. Skin, for instance, is an evident model of how cells’ nuclei are placed at
tissues provides protection. many levels
2. It acts as a barrier. has multiple layer of cells
Stratified epithelium
a. It prevents from contamination of harmful and intended for protection
molecules by not allowing infiltration of toxic
microorganisms. B. Simple Squamous Epithelium
3. It permits passage of substances.
a. Diffusion allows exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the lungs providing enough
oxygenation in the body.
4. It secretes.
a. All glands are made of epithelial tissue. The
endocrine glands secrete hormones, the
mucous glands secrete mucus, and our
intestinal tract contains cells that secrete
digestive enzymes in addition to the pancreas
and the liver, which secrete the major
portions of digestive enzymes.
5. It absorbs.
a. In the lining of the small intestine, nutrients
from our digested food enter blood capillaries
and get carried to the cells of our body.
 It contains single-layered flat cells where certain
substances are allowed to cross.
 Because of this characteristic, processes such as
diffusion, osmosis, secretion and filtration as well as
provision of a level of protection from friction are also
possible.
 protection was also made through the fluid
 from the secretions of simple squamous epithelium
because it lubricates the surfaces between
 the organs thereby preventing damage from friction
when the organs rub against one another or the body
wall.

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[ANPH111] 1.03 The Tissues and The Integumentary System
C. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
 Simple cuboidal epithelium consists of a single layer of
cube-like cell that aids in secretion and absorption.
 Through this and their greater volume and organelles,
they can enable active transport and facilitated
diffusion.
D. Simple Columnar Epithelium
 are made up of large, single layers of thin cells that
allows it to conduct complex processes such as mucus
secretions.
 The mucus protects the lining of the intestine, and the
digestive enzymes complete the process of digesting
food.
 The columnar cells then absorb the digested foods by
active transport, facilitated diffusion, or simple
diffusion.
E. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
 The linings of the larger ducts of any glands, the
epididymis and male urethra have Pseudostratified
columnar epithelium.
 When ciliated, it facilitates movement of unwanted
substances and help moves secretions like those
found in the upper respiratory tract.
 Some cells are lengthy enough to touch the free
surface while other cells falls short in length giving the
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false idea that there are more than one layer. But
originally, they were just a group of cells in single layer
that varies in height.
F. Stratified Squamous Epithelium
 Stratified squamous epithelium, whether keratinized or
not, its main function is protection as it forms a thick
layer of epithelium made from several layers of cells.
 One type of stratified squamous epithelium forms the
outer layer of the skin and is called keratinized
squamous epithelium.
 The dead cells provide protection against abrasion,
and form a barrier that prevents microorganisms and
toxic chemicals from entering the body, and reduces
the loss of water from the body.
 If cells at the surface are damaged or rubbed away,
they are replaced by cells formed in the deeper layers.
 In contrast, stratified squamous epithelium of the
mouth is composed of living cells with a moist surface.
 This nonkeratinized (moist) stratified squamous
epithelium also provides protection against abrasion
and acts as a mechanical barrier, preventing
microorganisms from entering the body.
G. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
 The lining of the ducts of sweat glands, esophageal
glands and parts of the male urethra are made up of
Stratified cuboidal epithelium that forms from layers of
cube-like cells intended to assist in secretion,
absorption and protection.
[ANPH111] 1.03 The Tissues and The Integumentary System
E. Stratified Columnar Epithelium G. Cell Connection

 Stratified columnar epithelium consists of more than

one layer of epithelial cells, but only the surface cells
are columnar.
 The deeper layers are irregular or cuboidal in shape.
 Like stratified cuboidal epithelium, stratified columnar  most epithelial cells and some muscle and nerve cells
epithelium is relatively rare. are tightly joined into functional units by points of
contact between their plasma membranes called cell
 It is found in the mammary gland ducts, the larynx,
junctions. Cell junctions perform different functions in
and a portion of the male urethra.
different tissues:
 This epithelium carries out secretion, protection, and
1. Tight junctions
some absorption. a. fuse cells together tightly to prevent
substances from passing between the
F. Transitional Epithelium cells.
b. In can be found in tissues with simple
epithelia like those that line the stomach,
intestines, and urinary bladder, tight
junctions prevent the contents of these
organs from leaking out.
2. Some cell junctions hold cells together so that
they don’t separate while performing their
functions:
a. Adherens junctions
i. have a dense layer of proteins
just inside the plasma
membrane called a plaque that
runs along micro laments to
form a belt or strap-like
structure called an adhesion
 Transitional epithelium is a special type of stratified belt.
epithelium that can be greatly stretched. ii. Two adjacent cells are joined by
 In the unstretched state, transitional epithelium transmembrane glycoproteins
consists of five or more layers of cuboidal or columnar that insert into the
cells that often are dome-shaped at the free surface corresponding adhesion belts.
 As transitional epithelium is stretched, the cells iii. This arrangement resists
change to a low cuboidal or squamous shape, and the separation even when
number of cell layers decreases. stretched.
b. Desmosomes
 Transitional epithelium lines cavities that can expand
i. are like adherens junctions, but
greatly, such as the urinary bladder.
the plaque binds to intermediate
 It also protects underlying structures from the caustic
laments and does not form a
effects of urine.
belt.
ii. Instead of two cells adhering
along a belt, they adhere at
specific spots.

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[ANPH111] 1.03 The Tissues and The Integumentary System
c.Hemidesmosomes
i. resemble half of a desmosome.
ii. They do not adhere adjacent
cells but rather attach cells to
membranes.
3. Gap junctions
a. form channels that allow ions and
molecules to pass between cells.
b. This permits cells in a tissue to
communicate and enables nerve or Apocrine
muscle impulses to spread rapidly
among cells.

H. Glands
 A gland is made of glandular epithelial cells that
secretes substances either in the surface or in the
bloodstream.
 These glandular epithelial cells form both endocrine
and exocrine glands.
 Some glands contain both endocrine and exocrine
glandular epithelium like the pancreas, ovaries, and
testes.
o Endocrine gland - ductless and secrete
substance called hormones directly into the
interstitial fluid then to the blood.
o Exocrine gland - secrete substances
through tubes or ducts. Holocrine
a. Structure based on shape of
ducts:
the duct
Simple ends directly into the
secretory portion
the duct
Compound ends into multiple
secretory branches
b. Structure based on shape of
secretory unit:
VI. Connective Tissue
Tubular straight
Acinar / alveolar saclike structure
 contains various cells, fibers and other substances.
c. Structure based on secretion  It protects and supports the body and its organs. No
types: wonder it is one of the most abundant tissues.

TWO MAJOR COMPONENTS

A. Cell
i. Fibroblasts
• are large flat cells that move and
secrete fibers and ground
substance.
Merocrine ii. Macrophages
• develop from white blood cells. They
eat bacteria and cell debris by
phagocytosis
iii. Plasma cells
• are small cells that develop from a
white blood cell. They secrete
antibodies that attack and neutralize
foreign substances.
iv. Mast cells
• are abundant along blood vessels.
They produce histamine, which
dilates small blood vessels during
inflammation and kill bacteria.

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[ANPH111] 1.03 The Tissues and The Integumentary System
v. Adipocytes 2. Cushioning and insulating.
• They are found below the skin and o Adipose tissue cushions and protects the
around organs like hear and tissues it surrounds and provides an
kidneys. insulating layer beneath the skin that helps
vi. White blood cells like Neutrophils that conserve heat.
migrates to sites of infection and Eosinophils 3. Connecting tissues to one another.
that migrate to sites of parasitic infection and o Connective tissues binds, supports and
allergic responses. strengthen other tissues. For instance,
tendons attaches muscles to bones while
B. Extracellular Matrix ligaments holds bones together.
4. Supporting and moving parts of the body.
i. Collagen
o Connective tissues accommodates
• strong, flexible bundles of the
locomotion while providing rigid support.
protein collagen, the most abundant
Examples of which includes surfaces of
protein in the body
bones and joints.
ii. Elastic fibers
5. Storing compounds.
• stretchable but strong fibers made of
o Storing energy through fat tissues and cells
proteins, elastin and fibrillin. They
provides reserves for the body. Bones in
are found in skin, blood vessels and
addition, stores minerals such as calcium and
lung tissues.
phosphate.
iii. Ground substances
6. Transporting.
• is the stuff between cells and fibers.
o It transport materials throughout the body.
It is made of water and organic
For instance, blood, delivers nutrients,
molecules (hyaluronic acid,
enzymes and essential nutrients.
chondroitin sulfate, glucosamine). It
7. Protecting.
supports cells and fibers, binds them
o It protects the body by destroying invading
together, and provides a medium for
microorganisms and eliminating cellular
exchanging substances between
debris. Protection from injury can also be
blood and cells.
sought from bones.

D. Classifications of Connective Tissues

TWO MAJOR CATEGORIES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES
 Connective tissue cells are named according to
1. Embryonic connective tissue
their functions and suffixes are used to denote
2. Adult connective tissue
their function.

Naming connective tissues and their examples

Classification of Connective Tissues
SUFFIX AND MEANING EXAMPLES
Loose – fewer
• fibroblasts are Areolar
fibers, more
cells that form fibers Adipose
ground
and ground Reticular
Connective substance
substance in the
suffix -blast (germ) Tissue Proper Dense – more Dense, regular collagenous
extracellular matrix
produce the matrix fibers, less Dense, regular elastic
of fibrous
ground Dense, irregular collagenous
connective tissue
substance Dense, irregular elastic
• Osteoblasts form
Cartilage – Hyaline
bone
Supporting semisolid Fibrocartilage
• fibrocytes are cells
Connective matrix Elastic
cells ending in -cyte (cell) that maintain it
Tissue Bone – solid Spongy
maintain it • osteocytes
matrix Compact
maintain bone
Blood
cells ending in -clast (break)  osteoclasts break Fluid Connective
Hemopoietic Red Marrow
break it down for remodeling down bone Tissue
Tissue Yellow Marrow

C. Functions of Connective Tissues

1. Enclosing and separating other tissues.
o Liver and kidneys were encapsulated to help
them be separated from other tissues and
organs. More so, connective tissues divides
structures such as muscles, nerves as well
as blood vessels from one another.

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[ANPH111] 1.03 The Tissues and The Integumentary System
E. Connective Tissue Proper
Connective Tissue Proper: Loose Connective Tissues
a. Areolar Connective Tissue
Cellular components of these Areolar Connective Tissue
include fibroblasts, which are mainly responsible for the
matrix. Other cellular components includes plasma cells,
adipocytes and mast cells. Moreover, the basement
membranes of epithelia often rests on connective tissues
thereby providing strength, elasticity and support.
b. Adipose Tissue
Adipose tissue consists of adipocytes, or fat cells. They
reduces heat loss and provide great amount of energy
reserve, support and protection. Unlike other connective
tissue types, adipose tissue is composed of large cells
and a small amount of extracellular matrix, which consists of
loosely arranged collagen and reticular fibers with
some scattered elastic fibers. The individual cells are large
and closely packed together. Adipose tissue also
pads and protects parts of the body and acts as a thermal
insulator.
c. Reticular Tissue
Reticular tissue are primarily made from specialized
fibroblasts called reticular cells and reticular fibers. They
forms the framework of lymphatic tissue in the spleen and
lymph nodes, as well as in bone marrow and the liver.
Connective Tissue Proper: Dense Connective Tissues
a. Dense Regular Collagenous Connective Tissue
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b. Dense Regular Elastic Connective Tissue
Dense elastic connective tissue has abundant elastic fibers
among its collagen fibers. It allows stretching of
various organs. Examples includes the lungs, the arterial
walls, trachea, bronchial tubes, vocal cords and
ligaments.
F. Supporting Connective Tissue
Supporting Connective Tissues
 Another type of a connective tissues are Supporting
Connective Tissues.
 In this connective tissue, specialized cells called
chondrocytes, or
 cartilage cells makes up a Cartilage.
 When grouped together, these chondrocytes forms an
island called lacuna.
 Cartilages provides greater support for surrounding
structures. Though they are rigid, it goes back easily
when compressed.
 However, there are no blood vessels within
cartilage.
Supporting Connective Tissue: Cartilage
a. Hyaline Cartilage
Embryonic and fetal skeletons are initially made up of
cartilage that eventually develops into a bone. In bones,
these hyaline cartilage are made up of chondrocytes and
collagen fibers. It forms a layer sustainable to bear
certain amount of compression. It can be found in the ends
of long bones, the ribs, nose, larynx and trachea, as
well in bronchial tubes
[ANPH111] 1.03 The Tissues and The Integumentary System
b. Fibrocartilage
Fibrocartilage, same as hyaline cartilage, consists
differentiated fibroblasts and collagen fibers. But unlike
hyaline, fibrocartilage has more collagen that helps withstand
pulling and tearing forces. Moreover, they provide
support in joining structures. They can be found in the pelvis,
the disks between the vertebrae and in some joints,
such as the knee and temporomandibular joints.
c. Elastic Cartilage
Like all cartilage, elastic cartilage contains chondrocytes but
more elastic fibers. The elastic fibers appear as
coiled fibers among bundles of collagen fibers. Elastic
cartilage is able to recoil to its original shape when bent.
The external ear, epiglottis, and auditory tube contain elastic
cartilage.
Supporting Connective Tissue: Bone
a. Bone
G. Fluid Connective Tissue
Fluid Connective Tissue: Blood
a. Blood
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VII. Muscle Tissue
 Muscular tissue is composed of elongated muscle
cells called muscle fibers.
 The job of muscular tissue is to generate force, which
produces motion, maintains posture, and generates
heat.
Muscle Tissues
a. Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscles are group of multi-nucleated cells with
striations due to the arrangement of contractile protein within
the cells. This further helps in the generation of force during
voluntary commands. As described, skeletal muscles can be
found attached to the skeleton. However, the nervous
system can cause skeletal muscles to contract without
conscious involvement, as occurs during reflex movements
and the maintenance of muscle tone
b. Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle has cylindrical, intermediate-sized cells that
make up this tissue are connected to one another by cell
junctions called intercalated discs. These intercalated discs
contains specialized gap junctions helps in coordinating
contractions. Cardiac muscle has striations and contracts
involuntarily.
c. Smooth Muscle
Smooth muscle contains groups of small cells with one
nucleus that are capable of stretching and are part of blood
vessels, the stomach, intestines, uterus, and bladder. Unlike
skeletal muscles, smooth muscle tissue has no striations and
contracts involuntarily.
[ANPH111] 1.03 The Tissues and The Integumentary System
VIII. Nervous Tissue
 Nervous tissue transmits impulses to coordinate
activities including involuntary controls because these
specialized cells makes up the brain, spinal cord and
nerves.
 Despite the complexity of nervous system functions,
nervous tissue consists of only two types of cells
which are neurons and neuroglia.
 Neurons, or nerve cells, are responsible for
conducting action potentials.
• These action potentials are electrical
signals that assists in cell
communication, making them
sensitive to different stimuli.
• They convert these stimuli into
nerve impulses and conducts to
other neurons, to muscle fibers or
even to glands.
 Nerve cells are composed mainly of cell body,
dendrites and axons
 The cell body contains the nucleus and is the site of
general cell functions.
 Dendrites and axons are nerve cell processes.
 Dendrites usually receive stimuli leading to electrical
changes that either increase or decrease action
potentials in the neuron’s axon.
 Action potentials usually originateat the base of an
axon where it joins the cell body and travel to the end
of the axon.
 Neuroglia, on the other hand, are supporting cells that
do not generate or conduct nerve impulses but have
many other important supportive functions such as
nourishment, protection and even maintenance of
temperature for neurons.
Nervous Tissue
IX. Integumentary System
1. Skin
4. Nails
2. Hair
3. Oil & Sweat Glands 5. Sensory Receptors
A. Skin or Cutaneous Membrane
 Provides covering of the external surfaces of the body.
 As its largest organ, skin covers an area of about 2
square meters (22 square feet) and weighs 4.5–5 kg
(10–11 lb), about 16% of total body weight.
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MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
A. Protection
▪ The skin serves as the primary defense
against offending microorganisms. It provides
a barrier against ultraviolet light and helps
maintain fluid inside the body, thus
preventing dehydration.
B. Sensation
▪ Receptors in the skin makes it possible for
human organism to perceive pain, pressure
as well as other sensation like temperature
changes.
C. Vitamin D production
▪The body needs Vitamin D to help synthesize
calcium absorption, made possible by the
skin’s sufficient exposure to early sunlight.
D. Temperature Regulation
▪ The amount of blood flow beneath the skin’s
surface and the activity of sweat glands in the
skin both help regulate body temperature.
E. Excretion
▪ Small amounts of waste products are lost
through the skin and in gland secretions.
SKIN
 The skin is a multilayered organ that consists of two
main parts: Epidermis and Dermis
A. Epidermis
 made from keratinized stratified squamous epithelium,
is the superficial, thinner portion of the skin (figure
3.11) that prevents water loss and resists abrasion.
 This is due to the process called keratinization, a
process where cells undergo changes in shape and
chemical composition to replace worn out cells.
THE FIVE LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS
1. Stratum Basale
o also called as the stratum germinatum, is
the deepest layer that consists of either
columnar or cuboidal cells aligned in single
row.
o Some cells in this layer are stem cells
undergoing cell division to continually
produce keratinocytes.
o They undergo mitotic divisions about every
19 days.
o One daughter cell becomes a new stratum
basale cell and can divide again.
[ANPH111] 1.03 The Tissues and The Integumentary System
o The other daughter cell is pushed toward the
surface, a journey that takes about 40–56
days.
o As cells move to the surface, changes in the
cells produce intermediate strata.
2. Stratum spinosum
o 8 to 10 layers of many-sided keratinocytes
that t closely together. This layer provides
strength and flexibility to the skin.
o Cells in the more superficial portions of this
layer are beginning to flatten.
3. Stratum granulosum
o 3 to 5 layers of flattened keratinocytes that
are undergoing apoptosis.
o A distinctive feature of cells in this layer is the
presence of the protein keratin and
membrane-enclosed lamellar granules.
4. Stratum lucidum
o layers of flattened clear, dead keratinocytes
that contain large amounts of keratin.
o This layer is found only in the areas of the
body (thick skin) where exposure to friction is
greatest (for example, fingertips, palms,
soles).
5. Stratum corneum
o 25 to 30 layers of flattened dead cells from
the deeper strata.
o The interior of the cells contains mostly
keratin that aids in its natural strength.
o Its multiple layers of dead squamous cells
filled with keratin help to protect deeper
layers from injury and microbial invasion.
o The stratum corneum cells are also coated
and surrounded by lipids, which help prevent
fluid loss through the skin.
o When the skin is subjected to friction, the
number of layers in the stratum corneum
greatly increases, producing a thickened area
called a callus.
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o Over a bony prominence, the stratum
corneum can thicken to form a cone-shaped
structure called a corn.
B. Dermis
 is the deeper, thicker and dense connective tissue
portion
 the dermis is responsible for most of the skin’s
structural strength.
 is composed of dense collagenous connective tissue
containing fibroblasts, adipocytes, and macrophages.
 Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, glands, and
lymphatic vessels extend into the dermis
 Structural strength of the dermis solely relies on its
collagen and elastic fiber contents making them
durable to body movement.
 collagen fibers runs through different directions
making the skin to have tension lines or cleavage
lines.
o This is also the reason why surgeons needs
extra care where to do their incisions.
 If the skin is overstretched, it produces a damage in
the dermis and become stretch marks.
 Partition can also be seen in the dermis.
PARTITION OF THE DERMIS
1. Dermal Papillae.
o The uppermost portion of the dermis
o It has a lot of blood vessels that keeps an
avenue for providing nutrients,
thermoregulation and elimination of wastes.
o Moreover, they are aligned in parallels giving
way for the presence of fingerprints and
footprints.
o These nipple-shaped structures project into
the undersurface of the epidermis and can
contains blood capillaries, nerve endings for
sensory receptors, Corpuscles of touch or
Meissner corpuscle and free nerve endings
that helps with sensations of warmth,
coolness, pain, tickling, and itching.
2. Reticular Region
o deeper part of the dermis
o is attached to the subcutaneous layer,
contains bundles of collagen and some
coarse elastic fibers interspersed with
adipose cells, hair follicles, nerves, oil glands,
and sweat glands.
[ANPH111] 1.03 The Tissues and The Integumentary System
C. Skin Color
 Skin color is caused by pigments such as melanin,
hemoglobin and carotene.
D. Melanin
 In the skin, plays responsible for its pale yellow to
reddish brown to black shade.
 As evident, melanin is quite abundant in moles and
freckles and in certain areas of the body like the
nipples and areola.
 The lips, palms and soles, have contrariwise low
amounts of melanin.
 melanin also protects the body from harmful effects of
ultraviolet rays from the sun.
 In the stratum basale of the epidermis and mucous
membranes all over the body, melanin are being
formed by cells called melanocytes.
o Because the number of melanocytes
is about the same in all people,
differences in skin color are due
mainly to the amount and shade of
pigment that the melanocytes
produce and transfer to
keratinocytes.
E. Carotene
 another pigment, produces a yellowish hue brought
about by increase intake of carotene-rich foods such
as squash and carrots.
F. Other skin conditions
 Pregnant mothers do have increased melanin
production causing darkening of areas like nipples, the
genitalia and even more.
 Paleness and redness like blushing can be credited
to the amount of blood flowing through the skin.
 Cyanosis were due to a drop of oxygen saturation in
the blood, producing a bluish discoloration of the skin.
 Dark-skinned individuals have large amounts of
melanin in the epidermis. The more melanin that is
present, the darker the skin.
 Light-skinned individuals have little melanin in the
epidermis.
 The epidermis appears translucent, and skin color
ranges from pink to red, depending on the oxygen
content of the blood moving through capillaries in the
dermis.
 The red color is due to hemoglobin, the oxygen-
carrying pigment in red blood cells.
 Albinism is an inherited trait that causes individuals to
not produce melanin. People affected by albinism are
called albinos.
o Because most albinos do not have
melanin in their hair, eyes, and skin,
they need to take extra precautions
when exposed to the sun.
 Melanocytes may not be evenly scattered throughout
the skin, causing uneven melanin distribution.
 The presence of freckles occurs due to melanin
accumulation in patches.
 A mole or nevus presents as a round pigmentation
brought about by overgrowth of melanocytes.
 When the skin has portions that has complete or
partial absence of melanocytes, irregular white spots
are evident. this condition is termed as vitiligo.
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G. Subcutaneous Tissue
 Deep to the dermis, but not part of the skin, is the
subcutaneous layer.
 This layer consists of areolar connective tissue and
adipose tissue.
 Fibers that extend from the dermis anchor the skin to
the subcutaneous layer, which, in turn, attaches to
underlying tissues and organs.
 The subcutaneous layer serves as a storage depot for
fat and contains large blood vessels that supply the
skin.
 Subcutaneous tissues are being measured to
calculate for an individual’s risks for lifestyle diseases
such as diabetes.
Accessory Skin Structures
A. Hair
 Hair protects the skin and other structures of the body.
 Hairs or Pili, are found abundant in almost every part
of the body except for the palms and soles, lips,
nipples and parts of the genitalia.
 The thickness and pattern of distribution of hair is
largely determined by genetic and hormonal
influences.
 Aside being crowning glory for women, hair was also
found beneficial for many reasons:
o hair on the head guards the scalp
from injury and the sun’s rays
o eyebrows and eyelashes protect the
eyes from foreign particles
o hair in the nostrils filters insects and
foreign particles to protect the
tissues of the respiratory system.
 Hair is produced in the hair bulb, which rests on the
hair papilla
 Blood vessels within the papilla supply the hair bulb
with the nourishment needed to produce the hair.
HAIR GROWTH CYCLE
 During the growth stage, it is formed by epithelial
cells within the hair bulb.
 These cells, like the cells of the stratum basale in the
skin, divide and undergo keratinization.
 The hair grows longer as these cells are added to the
base of the hair within the hair bulb.
 The hair root and shaft consist of columns of dead
keratinized epithelial cells.
 During the resting stage, growth stops and the hair is
held in the hair follicle.
 When the next growth stage begins, a new hair is
formed and the old hair falls out.
 The duration of each stage depends on the individual
hair.
 Hair color is determined by varying amounts and types
of melanin.
 Each hair is a thread of fused, dead, keratinized
epidermal cells that consists of a shaft, root, hair
follicle and hair root plexuses
1. Shaft
o is the superficial portion that projects above
the surface of the skin.
2. Root
o root is the portion below the surface that
penetrates into the dermis and sometimes
into the subcutaneous layer.
3. A hair has a hard cortex, which surrounds a softer
center, the medulla.
[ANPH111] 1.03 The Tissues and The Integumentary System
4. The cortex is covered by the cuticle, a single layer of that contains small amount
overlapping cells that holds the hair in the hair follicle. of potassium, ammonia,
5. Hair follicle surrounds the root and is composed of lactic acid, uric acid and
epidermal cells. other wastes. It is
6. Hair root plexuses are nerve endings that surround widespread through the
each hair follicle. They are sensitive to touch and are body but abundant in the
stimulated if a hair shaft is moved. palms, soles, forehead and
upper torso.
 Associated with each hair are sebaceous glands and a
bundle of smooth muscle cells called arrector pili to
raise, which extends from the upper dermis to the side
of the hair follicle.
 In its normal position, hair emerges at an angle to the
surface of the skin.
 Under stress, such as cold or fright, nerves stimulate
the arrector pili muscles to contract, which pulls the
hair shafts perpendicular to the skin surface.

B. Glands
 produce secretions that perform a variety of functions.
 There are two major glands located in the skin and
they are sebaceous and sweat glands.

C. Sebaceous Glands
 lies in the dermis and open into hair follicles or directly
onto the skin.
 It secretes sebum as an oily substance that contains
lipids and cellular debris.
 Rich in lipids, they help to soften the skin, prevents
o Apocrine gland
• is limited to the axillary and
pubic regions and
produces a thicker sweat
often released during
emotional stress.
• They are compared to
scent glands as they
respond to stress and
sexual stimulation.
• It secretes a non-strong
odor unless it accumulates
on the skin. When this
occurs, bacteria begins to
degrade substances in the
sweat, resulting to body
odor.

E. Nails

 Nails are plates of tightly

water loss and lubricates skin and hair. packed, hard, dead, keratinized
cells of the epidermis.
 However, when sebaceous glands of the face become
enlarged because of accumulated sebum, blackheads  Functionally, nails help us
develop. grasp and manipulate small
objects, provide protection to the
 Bacteria metabolize the sebum and form pimples or
ends of the fingers and toes, and
boils.
allow us to scratch various parts of the body.
D. Sweat Glands  The nail matrix and nail bed are epithelial tissue with
a stratum basale that gives rise to the cells that form
 The skin of an adult individual contains 3 to 4 million the nail.
Sweat glands or Sudoriferous Glands as it appears  Cell production within the nail matrix causes the nail to
to be the most numerous of the skin glands. grow.
 During active movements, the body loses about 500ml  Unlike hair, nails grow continuously and do not have a
of insensible perspiration that doesn’t make the skin resting stage.
feel damp.  Dividing cells within the nail matrix become keratinized
 There are two types of sweat glands and these are as the nail grows outward.
Eccrine and Apocrine.  The average growth of fingernails is about 1 mm (0.04
o Eccrine glands inch) per week.
• produces a transparent,
watery fluid called sweat
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[ANPH111] 1.03 The Tissues and The Integumentary System
PARTS OF A NAIL o Keratin protects the body from heat,
1. Nail Body abrasion, chemicals, and microbes.
o the externally visible portion of the nails o Keratinocytes resist invasion by microbes,
2. Nail Root and the Langerhans cells alert the immune
o is covered and extends to the nail matrix. system to the invaders.
3. Cuticle or Eponychium o Furthermore, the skin can usually repair itself
o is stratum corneum that extends onto the nail following minor injuries, such as cuts and
body. tears.
4. Nail Bed 3. Protection
o The underlying bed where the nail is attached o As the largest organ in the body, the
which is located distal to the nail matrix. integumentary system performs many
5. Nail Matrix protective functions.
o is thicker than the nail bed and produces o Being the body’s primary defense, the skin
most of the nail. protects the body against invasion of
6. Lunula pathogenic microorganisms as well as
o A small part of the nail matrix, can be seen extensive water loss.
through the nail body as a whitish, crescent- o The skin, with its squamous epithelium
shaped area at the base of the nail. decreases chances of having abrasions
VARIOUS PORTION OF A NAIL brought about by friction and trauma whereas
1. Nail Body protection from harmful effects of ultraviolet
o is pink because the blood vessels of the light were afforded by the presence of
underlying skin partially show through. melanin in the skin.
2. Free Edge o Hair provides protection in several ways.
o is white because it extends past the tip of the o The hair on the head acts as a heat insulator,
finger or toe, and there is no underlying eyebrows keep sweat out of the eyes,
tissue. eyelashes protect the eyes from foreign
3. Lunula objects, and hair in the nose and ears
o Is white because the nail is too thick in this prevents the entry of dust and other
region for any blood vessels to show through. materials.

F. Physiology of the Integumentary System

The main functions of the Integumentary System
1. Sensation
o The skin is one of our connections to the
outside world. Its specialized nerve receptors
sense pressure, pain, changes in
temperature, and things we touch.
o The nails protect the ends of the fingers and
o These receptors include mechanoreceptors,
toes from damage and can be used in
Meissner corpuscles, Pacinian
corpuscles, thermoreceptors, and pain defense.
receptors called nociceptors 4. Vitamin D Production
o A thirty-minute exposure to sunlight in a two-
o Although hair does not have a nerve supply,
day frequency in a week can provide the
sensory receptors around the hair follicle can
detect the movement of a hair body with adequate Vitamin D.
2. Temperature o bother? Vitamin D plays an important role in
calcium homeostasis in the body.
o Our skin helps regulate your body
o Vitamin D is converted to an active form by
temperature in many ways.
o Because the skin’s surface area is so large (2 reactions in the liver and kidney.
m2, or 22 ft2), our body is able to radiate to o Adequate levels of vitamin D are necessary
because active vitamin D stimulates the small
the outside air vast amounts of heat that your
intestine to absorb calcium and phosphate,
body has produced.
o The eccrine glands produce sweat to help the substances necessary for normal bone
eliminate heat via evaporation. growth and normal muscle function.
5. Absorption and Excretion
o The skin acts as a large reservoir of blood
o Though minor, the integumentary system
(8%–10% total blood ow).
o When you are hot, increased blood flow to also contributes in excretion as well as
the skin delivers more heat to be radiated absorption.
o Small amounts of salt, ammonia and urea are
away and contributes to higher sweat
being excreted through the sweat glands.
production.
o When you are cold, reduced blood flow to o This system contributes to absorption of
the skin conserves body heat and reduces substances such as medication like in the
case of transdermal patches and intradermal
sweat production.
o When you are cold, arrector pili contract to implants.
raise the angle of body hairs and cause
goose bumps.
o The raised body hair reduces air
microcirculation immediately above the skin’s
surface.
o The reduced air circulation helps impede the
loss of body heat via the skin.
o The skin forms a protective barrier for the
internal organs.

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