ORGANISMAL BIOLOGY: Animal Tissues and Organ well adapted for diffusion or filtration of water, gases,

System and other substances

Plant Form and Function 2. Simple Cuboidal
simple layer of almost cubic cells
ANIMAL TISSUES found in secreting organs such as glands and also in
4 TYPES OF ANIMAL TISSUES the kidney tubules where it is specialized for water
1. Epithelial Tissue reabsorption and ion movement
2. Connective Tissue secretes and absorbs substances
3. Muscular Tissue
4. Nervous Tissue

Epithelial Tissue
o found inside and outside the body 3. Simple Columnar
o two basic roles: covering/ lining and glandular forms lining specialized for absorption and secretion
o consists of renewable sheets of cells that have surface lines portions of the reproductive tract, digestive tract,
specializations adapted for their specific roles excretory ducts, and respiratory tract
o covers or lines something
o special function: ability to regenerate easily
o small intestine has villus which is responsible in the
absorption of nutrients
o for absorption, transport, excretion, protection, secretion,
and for sensory reception
o glandular epithelium- forms the functional portions of
exocrine glands (secrete substances into ducts that
empty onto epithelial surfaces) and endocrine glands 4. Stratified Squamous
(secretes substances that diffuse into the bloodstream) composed of multiple layers of cells along the basement
o basement membrane- thin, glue-like layer that holds the membrane topped by cuboidal cells then by squamous
epithelium in place while remaining highly permeable to cells
water and other substances because of its thickness and its constant renewal, it is
well adapted for protection
Classification of Epithelial Tissue
found in the outer part of the skin and mucous lining of
Based on Number of Cell Layers the mouth, vagina, and esophagus
1. Simple
includes all tissues that have exactly one layer (or
stratum) of cells
2. Stratified
includes epithelia with more than one layer of
cells Based on Cell Shapes
5. Stratified Cuboidal
1. Squamous composed of multiple layers of cube-shaped cells
flat
2. Cuboidal
roughly cube-shaped
3. Columnar
column/ tube-like
Types of Epithelial Tissue 6. Pseudostratified columnar
many layers because of
1. Simple Squamous insertion
single layer of flattened cells pseudostratified= false
forms a very thin lining found in the blood vessels, alveoli stratified
and other areas where thin membranes are required
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Connective Tissue Skeletal has obvious striations
o most abundant directly attached to skeleton
o act as connections among various other
tissues o Functions: Cardiac has striations
binding, supporting, protecting, forming blood, storing uninucleated
fats, filling space involuntary

Types of Connective Tissue (based on type of matrix)

1. Adipose
composition: fat cells in minimal Nervous Tissue
matrix composed of neurons
stores fat for energy and (impulse-conducting cells)
insulation and neuroglia (support cells)
found beneath skin, between muscles, around heart composes organs of the
and joints nervous system: brain, spinal
2. Cartilage cord, nerves
composition: cells in matrix of Functions:
fine collagen fibers detect stimuli and conveys
flexible support information throughout the
found in ears, joints, bone ends and respiratory body
tracts soft bone and cartilaginous cells= semi-solid neuron: has soma (cell body),
3. Bone cytoplasm, nucleus, dendrite
composition: cells in matrix of collagen and (carry impulse from external environment), axon
minerals serves as firm support (carry impulse away from the cell body), axon
found in the skeleton terminals (attached to other neurons)
osteocytes- solid matrix
tough, hard, rigid
Organ and Organ Systems
Simple animals: invertebrates
4. Blood
-has no specialized cells
liquid
-simplest animal
composition: red blood cells, white blood cells,
Complex animals: vertebrates
platelets in plasma matrix
-evolved tissues and organs
transports gases, nutrients,
Important Functions: digestion, respiration, circulation,
wastes, hormones
conduction of nerve impulses, support, excretion, and
found in arteries, veins, and
reproduction
capillaries
Digestion
Muscular Tissue
--Purpose: obtain energy and nutrients
o allows movement by contraction of individual muscle
--sponges digest their food with their body cells
cells known as muscle fibers
--simple animals such as flatworms: have gastro-vascular
o muscle fibers: contract and relax
cavity- a digestive cavity with only one opening
Types of Muscle Tissue
Smooth no striations are visible
uninucleated --hydra- has only one
involuntary body opening such as
found in digestive tract octopus
and arteries

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 --more complex animals: Conduction of Nerve Impulses
have a digestive tract with two --Purpose: coordination; coordinate the cavities in an
openings (mouth and animal’s body and allow animal to sense and respond
anus) to environment
--simple animals like hydra: have a little coordination among
their nerve cells
-echinoderms- has no brain
--complex animals: have nerve cords/ ganglia in brain

Respiration
--Purpose: exchange oxygen and Carbon dioxide
gases through diffusion
--can only take place across a moist surface
--simple animals: gases are
exchanged directly
through diffusion
--more complex animals:
specialized respiratory structures Support: Skeletal
like gills and lungs (book lung --Purpose: provide a framework
and trachea) --exoskeleton: made of carbohydrates
--endoskeleton: bone, cartilage
: made of Phosphorus and Calcium
Circulation
--Purpose: transport Oxygen and nutrients to the other parts
of the body
--2 Types:

Open: has no true heart and

blood vessels Excretion
--Purpose: removal of wastes
from cellular metabolism
--simple aquatic invertebrate and
some fishes: pass through skin or
Closed: has both organs and gills by diffusion
tissues --more complex animals:
organ- heart that pumps blood specialized excretory structures like
through a system of kidneys (retain water and release
blood vessels urine in the body)

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Reproduction Leaf Anatomy
--Purpose: provide offspring to ensure species survive
--2 types:
Asexual
-nofusionof
gametes
Sexual
-union of a male and female gametes
-egg+ sperm= fertilization= blastula
-Internal and External
PLANT FORM AND FUNCTION

Plant Organ Systems

Shoot System
Root System
Shoot System

--above the ground

--Functions:
Photosynthesis
Reproduction o Reproductive Organs
Storage
Transport --variable
Hormone Production --flowers, seeds, fruits
o Stems

--support and elevate leaves

--transport between roots and
shoots
o Leaves
--petiole: attaches to the stem and supports the broad flat
blade (petiole and blade: two main parts)
--veins: vascular bundles inside leaves, and are often leaf’s
most prominent external feature
--midrib: a large strengthened vein along the midline of a leaf
--axil: the angle between the upper side of stem and a leaf,
branch or petiole
--axillary bud: a bud that develops in the axil
--internode: area of the stem between any two adjacent
nodes
--cuticle: waxy layer that coats leaves and stem; protects
plant from predators and fungi; prevent plant from dehydration
pedicel receptacle
Parts of a Complete Flower
--receptacle: attachment point for four types of structures, all of
which are modified leaves
--sepals: leaflike structures that enclose and protect the inner
floral parts
--petals: often have bright colors that attract pollinators
--stamen: male flower parts
--anther: filaments that bear pollen-producing bodies found at
the tip
--style: stalk-like that bears a structure called stigma at its tip
--stigma: receives pollen
--ovary: contains the egg-bearing ovules
--corolla: collective term for the petals of a flower
--calyx: collective term for the sepals of a flower

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Root System
--everything found underground as well as aerial
roots --Types of Primary Root System:

o Taproot System
-single primary root
dominates over branch roots
(gymnosperms and most
dicotyledons)
-taproots grow fast and GENETICS: Patterns of Inheritance
deep, maximizing support and enabling a plant to use minerals  scientific study of heredity and hereditary variation
and water deep in the soil  heredity: how traits are passed among generations
o Fibrous Root System –Phenotype
-network of fine roots with no central
dominant root
 observable characteristics of an
organism --Genotype
 the allele combination in an individual
 express the genetic make-up of an individual
--Hybrid
o Roots  heterozygous; self-fertilization produces offspring with
--absorption of organic minerals and water via root hairs mixed genotypes and phenotypes
--anchors the plant --Heterozygous
--store materials  possessing different alleles of one gene
External Parts of Roots  two parents each contributed different genetic
-root cap- protects the information
growing tip from abrasion --Homozygous
-zone of elongation-  possessing identical alleles of one gene
allows the root to get  both parents contributed the same gene version
deeper within the soil --Allele
-meristematic zone- rapid  one of the (two or more) alternative forms of a gene
mitosis of undifferentiated --Gene
meristematic cells  sequence of DNA that encodes a protein
 help determine characteristics
Plant Tissue Systems --Filial
 offspring from the parental gene; denoting the
generation or generations after the parental generation
--Dominant
 allele that is expressed if present in the genotype
 allele that encodes a protein that exerts its
effects whenever it is present
--Recessive
 allele that is expressed only in the absence of a
dominant allele
--Pure (Homozygous)
 parental gene
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CHROMOSOME

Axial

Terminal

FIRST LAW: Law of Segregation

o two alleles of each gene are packed into separate
gametes, that is they segregate or more apart from
each other during gamete formation
o allele- segregated during gametogenesis

(First Filial Generation) hybrid/ heterozygous tall

(Second Filial Generation)

homozygous tall homozygous short/

simply short

o autosome- present in almost all cells except reproductive

cells SECOND LAW: Law of Independent Assortment
o sex chromosome- gametes o expression of one trait doesn’t affect the other
normal person: 46 chromosomes from both parents which o describes how different genes independently separate
are diploid (2 sets of 23 chromosomes) from one another when reproductive cells develop.
1-22 (autosomes) 23 (sex chromosome) a. flower color: purple
maternal: X or X white
paternal: X or Y b. flower position: axial
terminal
o genes are expressed differently

THIRD LAW: Law of Dominance

o dominant trait- expressed because it is strong whereas
recessive is weak

MONOHYBRID CROSS
o uses only one character (2
MENDEL’S LAW OF INHERITANCE
traits)
o Gregor Johann Mendel- Father of Modern Genetics (how
o 1 letter symbol
heredity occurs)
o example:
o experimented on pea plants
o discovery of characteristics (any heritable feature that
P1 ♀AA x ♂aa
varies among individuals) and traits (variant for each
character)
A A a a

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DIHYBRID CROSS
o uses two characters P1 ♂ HhAa x ♀HhAa
(4 traits) Gametes: ♂ HA, Ha, hA, ha
o 2 letter symbols ♀ HA, Ha, hA, ha

F1 P: tall and purple= 9

tall and white= 3
SAMPLE PROBLEMS short and purple= 3
1. A genetic cross between two F1 hybrid pea plants having short and white= 1
yellow seeds will yield what percent green-seeded plants P.R: 9:3:1
in F2v generation? Yellow seeds are dominant to green.
B= yellow b= green
P2 ♀Bb x ♂Bb 5. In guinea pig, black coat is dominant to albino. Rough coat
is dominant to smooth coat. A black smooth guinea pig was
B bBb mated with an albino rough guinea pig. Their offspring were
black rough and black smooth. If these were the only types
G= heterozygous purple= 4 G.R= 4:0 produced over period of years in a number of mating, what
was the probable genotype of each parent?
P= purple= 4 P.R= 4:0
25% green-seeded parent: ♂black smooth x ♀albino rough
____ aa hh ____
2. In a certain plant, yellow fruit is dominant to white fruit. A
heterozygous yellow fruit is crossed with a plant with white offspring: black rough x black smooth
fruit. Determine the probable genotypic and phenotypic ____ ___ ___ aa
ratios resulting from this cross.
D= yellow d= white
P1 ♂ HHaa x ♀ hhAa
P1 ♀Dd x ♂dd Gametes: ♂ Ha, Ha, Ha, Ha
♀ hA, hA, hA, hA
D d d d

G.R= 2:2 P.R= 2:2

P1 G: ♂ homozygous black and smooth
3. (based on problem 2) Determine the probable phenotypic ♀ albino and heterozygous rough
and genotypic ratios expected from crossing two
heterozygous plants.
D= yellow d= white

P2 ♀Dd x ♂dd

D d d d

G.R= 1:2:1 P.R= 3:1

4. In pea plants, tallness is dominant and purple flower is

dominant to white. Two plants both heterozygous for
both genes are crossed. What is the
phenotypic ratio of F1?

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