Tissues - between the epithelial cells is the lateral surface,
 Are a group of specialized cells and the
extracellular substances surrounding them.
 Microscopic examinations of tissues can identify
abnormalities, including cancer, resulting from
changes in a tissue.
 Tissue structure and function is important in
understanding organs, organ systems, and the
complete organism.
Body tissues are classified into four types, based on
the structure of the cells:
1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Nervous tissue
Epithelium
 is found virtually everywhere, both inside and
outside the body.
 It is primarily a cellular tissue, meaning there is a
very little extracellular material between the cells.
 It forms the layers that cover surfaces and line the
hallow organs of our body.
The characteristics common to most types of epithelial
tissue are listed here:
1. Mostly composed of cells – Epithelial tissue consist
almost entirely of cells, with very little extracellular
matrix between them.
2. Covers body surface – Epithelial tissue covers
body surfaces and forms glands that derived
developmentally from body surfaces.
3. Has an exposed surface – because Epithelial
tissues form covering and linings, one surface of
their cells is in direct contact with either the outside
of the environment or the contents of our hallow
organs.
- the surface that is exposed is called the free
surface, or apical surface.
4. Attaches at the basal surface – the surface of the
cells that is anchored in place is called the basal
surface – is held in place in place through
attachment to a non – living material is somewhat
mortar for brick.
- And it is called the basement membrane and is
composed of specialized extracellular material
selected by the epithelial cells.
where the epithelial cells are attached to each
other.
5. Has specialized cell connections and matrix
attachments – adjacent epithelial cells are attached
to each other.
6. Is avascular – because of the close connections
among the epithelial cells, there are no blood
vessels found among the epithelial cells.
7. Is capable of regeneration – epithelial tissue has
the ability to replace damage cells with new
epithelial cells.
Functions of Epithelia
1. Protecting underlying structures – include the outer
layer of the skin and epithelium of the oral cavity,
which protect the underlying structures from
abrasion.
2. Acting as a barrier – epithelium prevents many
substances from moving trough it.
3. Permitting the passage of substances – epithelium
also allows many substances to move through it.
4. Secreting substances – sweat glands, mucous
glands, and the enzyme-secreting portion of the
pancreas are all composed of epithelial cells.
5. Absorbing substances – the cell membranes of
certain epithelial tissues contain carrier proteins
that regulate the absorption of materials.
Classification of Epithelia
1. Simple epithelium - consist of a single layer of cells,
with each cell extending from the basement
membrane to the free surface.
2. Stratified epithelium – consist of more than one
layer of cells, but only deepest layer of cells
attaches to the basement membrane.
3. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium – is a special
type of simple epithelium
- it means false
There are three types of epithelium based on idealized
shapes of the epithelial cells:
1. Squamous - cells are flat or scalelike.
2. Cuboidal – cells are cube shaped
3. Columnar – cells tend to be taller than they wide.
Simple squamous epithelium – is a single layer of thin, flat
cells.
Simple cuboidal epithelium – is a single layer of cubelike
cells that carry out active transport, facilitated diffusion, or
secretion.
Simple columnar epithelium – is a single layer of tall, thin
cells.
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium – is actually a single
layer of cells, but the cells appear to be layered due to
differing heights of adjacent cells and positions of their
nuclei.
Stratified squamous epithelium – from thick epithelium
because it consists of several layers of cells.
Transitional epithelium – is a special type of stratified
epithelium that can stretch.
The Relationship Between Structure and Function of Epithelial
Tissues
1. One layer of flat cells
2. One layer of cubelike cells.
3. One layer of tall, rectangular cells
4. Multiple layers of flat cells
Free Surface Modifications
 Endothelium, smooth free surfaces reduce friction;
an example of such a surface is the tissue lining
blood vessels.
Cell connections
1. Mechanically bind the cells together
2. Help form a barrier to the movement of molecules
or ions
3. Provide a mechanism for intercellular
communication
Desmosomes – cell connections structures that
mechanically bind epithelial cell together.
Hemidesmosomes – those that bind cells to the basement
membrane.
Tight junctions – are cell connection structures that form
barriers and anchor cells to each other.
Adhesion belts – are found just below the tight junctions.
Gap junctions – consist of groups of channels that allow
small molecules and ions to pass from one epithelial cell to
an adjacent one.
Glands
 Are composed of epithelium supported by a
network of connective tissue.
 One or more cells that makes and secrets an
aqueous fluid called secretion.
Site of product release
Endocrine glands (internally secreting)– produce
chemicals called hormones and are often termed
ductless glands based on their structure and mode of
secretion.
Exocrine glands (externally secreting) - produce a wide
variety of products, such as saliva, sweat and digestive
tract secretions.
1. Structure of the duct
2. Structure of the secretory portion of the gland
3. Mode of secretion within the secretory portion
Structure of Exocrine Glands
1. Unicellular – some exocrine glands are composed
of only a single cell, such as goblet cells that
secrete mucus.
2. Simple glands – are multicellular glands that have
a single, non – brunched duct.
- tubular (which is a straight,
narrow tube the same width as the duct)
- acinar (a saclike structure
whose width is greater than the width of the duct)
 Simple tubular – glands forming a straight
tube with no branching of the secretory
portion.
 Simple branched tubular – gland with
several tubular secretory portions
branching from the single duct.
 Simple acinar – glands with a single
saclike secretory portion.
 Simple branch acinar – glands with several
acinar secretory portions branching from
the single duct.
Compound
Compound glands – are multicellular glands that have
several branched ducts.
- it can be either tubular or acinar.
 Compound tubular – glands with multiple
conducts, each with a narrow tubular
secretory portion.
  Compound acinar – glands with multiple Mast cells- play an important role in inflammation
ducts, each with several saclike secretory
Extracellular Matrix
portion.
Three major components:
 Compound tubuloacinar - glands with
multiple ducts, each with several tubular - Protein fibers
and acinar secretory portions.
- Ground substances
Modes of Secretion by Exocrine Glands
1. Merocrine secretion - Fluid

- is the release of secretory products through Protein Fibers of the Matrix

exocytosis and is the common. - Collagen Fibers- consist the protein collagen - resembles
2. Apocrine secretion microscopic ropes

- is the release of secretory products when a - Reticular Fibers- very fine, short collagen fibers that
portion of the free surface of the epithelial cell branch to form a supporting network
pinches off, releasing cytoplasmic contents. - Elastic Fiber- consist of the protein elastin- they have the
3. Holocrine secretion ability to return to their original shape after being stretched

- is the release of secretory products through

shedding of entire cells. Ground Substance of the Matrix
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Major Functions: Ground substance- consist of non- fibrous molecules
- Enclosing and separating other tissue - “Shapeless” background against which the collagen fibers
- Connecting tissue to one another are see through the microscope

- Supporting and moving parts of the body Proteoglycans- large molecules that consist of a protein
core attached to many long polysaccharides.
- Storing compounds
- Transporting Classification of Connective Tissue
- Embryonic Connective tissue- mesenchymal
- Protecting
- mucous connective tissue
Cell connective Tissue
Adult Connective Tissue
Extracellular Matrix- specialized cells of the various
connective tissues produce this Three types
The name of the cell identifies the cell functions by means - Connective tissue proper
of one of the following suffixes:
- Supporting connective tissue
Blast- create the matrix
- Fluid Connective Tissue
Cytes- maintain it
Connective Tissue Proper
Clasts- break it down for modeling - consist of relatively few protein fibers that form a lacy
network, with numerous spaces filled with ground
Osteoblasts- from bone
substances and fluid
Fibroblasts- cells that from fibrous connective tissue and
fibrocytes
Chloroplast – (chondro-- cartilage)
Three subdivisions:
Adipocytes- adipose cells, contains large amount of lipid
Areolar - connective tissue primarily consist of collagen
fibers and a few elastic fivers
Function: loose packing, support, nourishment for the
structures with which it is associated
Location: widely distributed throughout the body
Adipose- consist of adipocytes or fat cells, which contain
large amount of lipids for energy storage
Function: packing material, thermal insulator, energy
storage, and protection of organs against injury
Location: in subcutaneous areas, mesenteries, renal pelvis
Reticular- the framework of lymphatic tissue
Function: provides superstructure for lymphatic and
hematopoietic tissues
Dense Connective Tissue
- large number of protein fibers that form thick bundles and
fill nearly all of the extracellular space
2 major subcategories:
Dense collagenous connective tissue-
Function: withstand great pulling forces extended in the
direction of fiber orientation
Location: tendons and ligaments
- Dense regular- collagen fibers oriented in the same
direction
- Dense Irregular- fibers are oriented in many different
directions
Dense Elastic Connective Tissue-
Function: capable of stretching and recoiling like a rubber
band with strength in the direction of fiber orientation
Location: Elastic ligaments between vertebrae and along
dorsal aspect of the neck
Supporting Connective Tissue
Cartilage- composed chondrocytes or cartilage cells,
located in spaces called lacunae
Three types of cartilage
 Hyaline Cartilage- covers the end of bones where
they come together to form joints
Function: allows growth of long bones; provides rigidity with
some flexibility in trachea
Location: growing long bones, nasal cartilage, costal
cartilage of ribs
 Fibrocartilage- has more collagen than hyaline
cartilage --- can withstand both compression and
pulling or tearing forces
Function: capable of withstanding considerable pressure
Location: knees and temporomandibular joints
 Elastic Cartilage- contains elastic fibers to collagen
and proteoglycans.
Function: provides rigidity with even more flexibility than
hyaline cartilage
Location: External Ears, epiglottis and auditors tubes
Bone
- Hard connective tissue that consist of living cells and a
generalized matrix
Function: provides great strength and support and protects
internal organs
Location: all bones of the body
2 types of bone tissue:
- Spongey bone- has spaces between trabeculae, or plates
or bones-- resembles a sponge
- Compact bone- more solid, no space between many thin
layers of mineralized matrix
Fluid Connective Tissue
Blood- formed elements and a fluid matrix
Function: transport oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones,
nutrients, and many other more
Location: within the blood vessels, white blood cells
 MUSCLE TISSUE - Serous membrane do not contain glands, but they secrete
- to contracts or shorten, making movement possible. small amount of fluid called serous fluid
3 types of muscle Tissue 3. Synovial Membranes- line the cavities of freely movable
joints
1. Skeletal Muscle- what we normally think of as “muscle”
Synovial membrane produced Synovial fluid making
- are striated or banded, because of the the joint fluid slippery
arrangement of contractile proteins within cells
- describe as voluntary
TISSUE DAMAGE AND INFLAMMATION
2. Cardiac Muscle- muscle of the heart Inflammation- occurs when tissues are damage
- responsible for pumping blood Five major symptoms:
- under involuntary control 1. Redness
3. Smooth Muscle- forms the walls of hollow organs 2. Heat
- under involuntary control 3. Swelling
- responsible for moving food through digestive tract 4. Pain
and emptying urinary bladder
5. Disturbance function
Chemical Mediators- chemical substances that are release
NERVOUS TISSUE or activates in the tissue and the adjacent blood vessels
after a person is injured
Nervous Tissue- forms brain, spinal cord, and nerves Mediators: histamine, prostaglandins
- Is characterized by the ability to conduct electric signals - Dilation- beneficial, it speeds the arrival of wbc and other
action potentials substances important for fighting infections and repairing
Neurons- or nerve cell, responsible for consisting electric injury
signals Chemical Mediators- also stimulate the pain receptor and
Three parts: increase the permeability of blood vessels.
1. Cell body- contains nucleus and is the site of general cell Edema- increases the pressure in the tissue, which can
functions stimulate neurons and cause pain

2. Dendrites- receive stimuli that lead to electrical changes TISSUE REPAIR

Tissue repair- the substitution of viable cells for dead cells
3. Axons- layer of tissue that covers structures or lines a
cavity Regeneration- new cells are the same type as those were
destroyed
TISSUE MEMBRANE
Tissue membrane- a thin sheet or layer of tissue that Replacement- new type of tissue develops, which
covers a structure or lines a cavity eventually produces a scar and causes loss of some tissue
function.
3 major categories of internal tissue membrane
Wound contracture- result of the contraction of fibroblasts
1. Mucous membranes- line cavities that open to the in the granulation tissue, pulls the edges of the wound
outside of the body, such as digestive, respiratory, and closer together
reproductive tracts.
2. Serous Membrane- line cavities that do not open to the
exterior of the body such as the pericardial, pleural, and
peritoneal cavities.