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Structural Organization in Animals

A. Animal Tissues:
In multicellular organisms their basic functions are carried out by different
groups of cells in an organized manner.
A group of similar cells along with intercellular substances which perform a
similar function is called Tissue. Tissues are organized in specific pattern to
form organs and latter organ systems. They are formed from primary germ
layers Ectoderm, Endoderm or mesoderm.
The term tissue was coined by Francis Xavier Bichat. The branch of science
that deals with the study of tissues is called Histology. Marcello Malpighi is
regarded as the founder of Histology.

Tissues vary according to their function. In animals based on their function

there are four basic types of tissues, they are-
1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscular tissue
4. Neural tissue
Epithelial tissue:
They are specialized group of cells which covers or lines the body parts
(Epithelium). They are formed of compactly packed cells with little intercellular
matrix. They formed from all the three germ layers (Ectoderm, mesoderm and
endoderm).
In epithelial tissue cells are resting on a noncellular membrane called basement
membrane. Basement membrane is formed of mucopolysaccharides and
glycoproteins. It helps in absorption of nutrients from adjacent tissues. All cell
in epithelium are held together with little intercellular material. All animal
tissues have specialized cell junctions. There are three types of cell junctions,
they are –
a. Tight junctions-helps to stop substances from leaking across a tissue
b. Adhering Junctions-They help in cementing and keeps neighboring cells
together.
c. Gap Junctions-They help cells to communicate with each other for
transfer of ions and small molecules.
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Blood vessels are absent in epithelial tissues, nutrients are absorbed through
basement membrane.

Based on the number of layers of cells above the basement membrane there are
two types of epithelial tissues-

1. Simple Epithelium and

2. Compound epithelium.

1. Simple Epithelium:
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Only single layer of cells seen above the basement membrane, functions as
lining for body cavities, ducts and tubes. Based on the shape of cells above the
basement membrane there are different types of simple epithelial tissues, they
are –
a. Squamous epithelium
b. Cuboidal epithelium
c. Columnar epithelium
d. Ciliated epithelium
e. Pseudostratified epithelium

a. Simple Squamous epithelium-

They are also called Pavement epithelium. It is made up of single thin layer of
flattened cells with irregular edges. Cells are provided with a prominent
centrally placed nucleus.

They are seen in regions where exchange of substances occurs (diffusion

boundary). squamous epithelium is seen in the walls of blood vessels
(endothelium) , air sacs of lungs etc.

b. Simple Cuboidal epithelium-

They are formed of single layer of cube shaped cells. Nucleus is prominent and
centrally placed. They are commonly found in ducts of glands and tubular parts
of nephron; the main function of cuboidal epithelium is secretion and
absorption.
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Brush bordered cuboidal epithelium Some cuboidal epithelial cells have brush
bordered free surface (folded surface), these surface increases absorptive area.
They are seen in the inner lining of proximal convoluted tubule of nephron.
Brush bordered columnar epithelium Certain columnar cells have brush
bordered free surface to increase the surface area. They are seen in the inner
lining of intestine to increase surface area (villi).

c. Simple Columnar epithelium-

They are formed of single layer of tall and slender cells. They have prominent
nucleus located towards the base. They are found in the lining of stomach and
intestine. The free surface of columnar epithelium may have microvilli to
increase absorptive area. The main function is secretion and absorption.

d. Simple Ciliated epithelium-

They are formed of cuboidal or columnar cells but their free surface possesses
small hair like cilia. Their main function is to help in movement of mucus and
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particles in a specific direction. They are mainly present in the inner surface of
hollow organs like fallopian tube and bronchioles.

e. Pseudostratified Epithelium-
They are formed of single layer of cells. The term pseudostratified is derived
from the appearance of this epithelium in section they appear to be multi
layered. The nuclei of these cells, however, are placed at different levels, thus
they appear multi-layered. They are seen in the lining of trachea and bronchi.

2. Compound epithelium-
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They have more than one layer of cells above the basement membrane. Their
main function is to provide protection against chemical and mechanical stresses.

There are different types of compound epithelium bases on the nature of cells
above the basement membrane.
i. Stratified keratinized squamous epithelium-
They are formed of multiple layers of squamous cells with their outer
free surface has a layer of keratin. They provide protection, seen on
the dry surface of skin, hair, nails etc.

ii. Stratified nonkeratinized epithelium-

They are compound epithelium without outer keratin coating. Seen on
the moist lining of buccal cavity and pharynx.

iii. Transitional epithelium-

Transitional epithelium is a type of stratified epithelium. This
tissue consists of multiple layers of epithelial cells which can
contract and expand in order to adapt to the degree of distension
needed (change shape). Transitional epithelium lines the organs
of the urinary system and is known here as urothelium (ureter
and urinary bladder).
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Epithelial tissues are modified to perform special functions, there are different
types of epithelial tissue modifications.

Modifications of epithelial tissues-

There are three main type of epithelial tissue modifications they are
1. Germinal epithelium- Special epithelium seen in reproductive organs.
They are specialized for the production of gametes.
2. Sensory epithelium-They are epithelial cells seen in sense organs. they
are specialized to perform sensory function. Sensory cells in tongue and
nasal epithelium
3. Glandular epithelium-
They are epithelial tissue modified as Glands. They produce and release
secretions.
Based on the number of Cells which form glands there are two types of
glands, they are –

a. Unicellular glands- Glands formed of single cell. Goblet cells or

mucus glands
b. Multicellular glands- Glands formed of many cells. Eg. Salivary
glands, Liver, etc.
Based on the presence or absence of duct there are three types of glands-
i. Exocrine gland- they are glands with ducts, contents are released
through a duct. Eg. Salivary gland, Tear gland, sweat gland, etc.
ii. Endocrine gland- They are glands with out duct, also called ductless
glands. Their secretions are called hormones. Secretions are released
directly to the blood and blood carries hormones to the target regions.
Based on how the contents are released from a gland there are three type of
glands, they are –
a. Merocrine Gland: Merocrine glands are those glands in which cells
secrete their substances by exocytosis from secretory cells. The gland can
be reused They are also known as eccrine. Examples include some
sweat glands and the salivary glands
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b. Apocrine Gland: The apical portion of the secretory cell of the gland
pinches off or raptures and contents are released. Example mammary
gland cell.
c. Holocrine Gland: These glands secretions contents by the rupture of the
plasma membrane, which destroys the cell and results in the secretion of
the product. Examples sebaceous gland.

Based on the shape of the gland there are different type of glands:-

1. Tubular glands have cells of a consistent shape that form a uniform

tubular lumen
2. Alveolar glands have cells of a similarly uniform size within a large, sac-
like lumen.
3. Acinar glands have secretory cells arranged as expanded ovoids or
spheres

Functions of Epithelial tissues: Some of the main function of epithelial tissues

are-
a. Diffusion
b. Secretion
c. Sensory
d. Reproduction (production of gametes)
e. Protection
f. Movement
g. Absorption
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Connective Tissue-
It is the most abundant and widely distributed tissue in the body of complex
animals. They are formed from mesodermal layer. Connective tissue connects
different tissues or organs in the body. Connective tissue is formed of three
major components, they are Matrix, fibers and cells.
Matrix is the ground substance along with fibers which contains cells.
There are three type of fibers seen in a connective tissue, they are Collagen
Fiber-White in color, thick and flexible. It contains protein collagen. Elastin
Fiber- Yellow in color, Flexible and elastic, they are thin fibers and contain a
protein elastin. Reticulin fiber- reticulin is a type of fibre in connective tissue
composed reticulin protein

Cells in connective tissue are

A. Mast cells: They produce Histamine (Histamine is involved in the
inflammatory response), serotonin (serotonin, an important
neurotransmitter and trophic factor, is synthesized by both mast cells and
neurons) and heparin (an anticoagulant (blood thinner) that prevents the
formation of blood clots.)
B. Fibroblast cells: They are specialized to produce fibers and matrix
C. Plasma cells: they are specialized for the production and storage of
antibodies
D. Adipose cells: Special cells that helps in the storage of fat.
E. Macrophages: they are phagocytotic cells in the connective tissue.

Based on the nature of matrix there are three different types of connective
tissue: -
1. Loose connective tissue
2. Dense connective tissue
3. Special connective tissue

Loose connective tissue:

They have cells and fibers loosely arranged in the matrix. There are two types
of loose connective tissue. They are-
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Areolar tissue- They function as support framework for epithelium. They help
in connecting skin to muscles.it can be considered as a typical connective tissue

Adipose tissue-These type of loose connective tissue is seen beneath the skin.
They are specialized for the storage of fats.

Dense connective tissue: Fibers and fibroblasts are compactly packed in this
tissue. Based on the orientation of fibers there are two types of Dense
connective tissue they are-Dense regular and dense irregular tissue.
Dense regular connective tissue- There is regular pattern of arrangement of
fibers where collagen fibers parallelly arranged. There are two types of dense
regular tissue they are, Ligaments- Have regular pattern of arrangement of
elastin fibers they mainly connect bones to bones. And Tendons- They have
regular pattern of arrangement of collagen fibers they mainly connect muscles
to bones.
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Dense irregular connective tissue- they have fibroblasts and many fibers mostly
collagen oriented differently. They are seen in skin , periosteum, perichondrium,
tunica albuginea etc..

Special connective tissue-

They are connective tissues are made up of a series of similar cells put together
to perform a specific function. The different special connective tissues are Fluid
connective tissue, bones and cartilage.
Fluid connective tissue: blood and lymph are fluid connective tissue.it helps in
transport of various substances within the body. Blood is formed of plasma and
formed elements. Lymph is the fluid that flows through the lymphatic system, a
system composed of lymph vessels (channels) and intervening lymph nodes
whose function is to return fluid from the tissues to the central circulation.

Bones: they are hard and non-pliable and is rich in calcium and is rich in
calcium salts(calcium phosphate) and collagen fibres. They contain a protein
called ossein. It is the main tissue that provide structural frame work to the
body. Bones support and protect softer tissues and organs. Bone cells are called
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osteocytes, they are seen in the spaces called lacunae. Bones associate with
skeletal muscles and helps in movement. Bones have an outer covering called
periosteum. Bone canaliculi are tiny canals contains cytoplasmic process of
bone cell it helps in nutrition.
Osteoblast-are cells with a single nucleus that synthesize bone A group of
organized osteoblasts together with the bone made by a unit of cells is usually
called the osteon.
Osteoblasts are specialized, terminally differentiated products of mesenchymal
stem cells. Osteoclasts break down bone tissue.
Special longitudinal channels present in bones through which blood vessel
passes are called Haversian canal. Haversian canals are interconnected by
transverse connective called Volkmann’s canal.
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Osteons are cylindrical structures that contain a mineral matrix and living
osteocytes connected by canaliculi, which transport blood. They are aligned
parallel to the long axis of the bone. Each osteon consists of lamellae, which are
layers of compact matrix that surround a central canal called the Haversian
canal. They are also called haversian system.
Cartilage: They are solid and pliable and can resist compression. Cartilage cells
are called Chondrocytes. They contain a protein called Chondrin. Blood vessels
are normally absent in cartilage.

There are different types of cartilage they are –

a. Hyaline cartilage-Hyaline cartilage is the glass-like (hyaline) but
translucent cartilage found on many joint surfaces. It is also most
commonly found in the ribs, nose, larynx, and trachea.
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b. Elastic cartilage- sometimes referred to as yellow fibrocartilage, is a

type of cartilage that provides both strength and elasticity to certain parts
of the body, such as the ears. Within the outer ear, it provides the skeletal
basis of the pinna, as well as the lateral region of the external auditory
meatus.
c. Fibrous cartilage- Fibrocartilage is the tough, very strong tissue found
predominantly in the intervertebral disks and at the insertions of
ligaments and tendons; it is similar to other fibrous tissues but
contains cartilage ground substance and chondrocytes.

Difference between Bone and Cartilage

Bones and cartilage differ by structure, types, and function. The main difference
between bone and cartilage are listed below.

Bones Cartilage

Bones are the hard, inelastic and a tough Cartilage is a soft, elastic and flexible
organ that forms part of the vertebral connective tissue that protects the bone
skeleton. from rubbing against each other.

Bones are of two types: compact or Cartilage is of three types: Hyaline

spongy. cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic
cartilage.

Bone cells are known as osteocytes. Cartilage cells are known as chondrocytes.

Presence of blood vessels. Absence of blood vessels.

The matrix is both organic and inorganic. The matrix is completely organic.

Has deposits of calcium salts. May or may not have deposition of calcium
salts.

The bones have a rich blood supply. Lacks blood supply except in few
cartilages.

The growth pattern of the bone is The growth pattern of the cartilage is
bidirectional. unidirectional.

Presence of calcium phosphate in the Has no calcium phosphate in the matrix.

matrix.
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Haversian canal system is present. Haversian canal system is absent.

Volkmann canal is present. Volkmann canal is absent.

Protect the body from mechanical damage,
provide a framework and shape for the
body, helps in the movement of the body,
store minerals, and produce both RBC –
red blood cells and WBC – white blood
cells.
Supports the respiratory tract, acts as shock
absorbers between weight-bearing bones,
maintains the shape and flexibility of fleshy
appendages and reduces friction at joints.

Muscular tissue-
They are mesodermal in origin. Basic unit of muscle tissue is called muscle cell
or muscle fibre. Each muscle is made up of many long, cylindrical fibres
arranged in parallel manner. Muscle fibres can contract in response to stimulus.
Muscles help in all type of movements. There are three types of muscles, they
are –
a. Skeletal muscle
b. Visceral muscle
c. Cardiac muscle
Skeletal muscle: it is one of three major muscle types,. It is a form of striated
muscle tissue, which is under the voluntary control of the somatic nervous
system. They are multinucleated
Visceral muscle: or smooth muscle, is tissue associated with the internal organs
of the body. They are spindle shaped and unnucleated. They are involuntary
muscles.
Cardiac muscles: also called heart muscle or myocardium. It is an
involuntary, striated muscle that constitutes the main tissue of the walls of
the heart. They are branched and can conduct feeble electric current. They have
special structures called intercalated disc for faster conduction and transmission
of impulses.
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Nervous tissue-
This type of tissue exerts greatest control over the body’s responsiveness to
changing conditions. They are ectodermal in origin. The basic unit of nervous
tissue is called Nerve cell or neuron. Neurons can conduct and transmit nerve
impulses. Special cells that support and protect neurons are called neuroglial
cells.
Based on the shape of neuron there are three types of neuron, they are
a. Unipolar neuron- A unipolar neuron is a neuron in which only one
process, called a neurite, extends from the cell body. Seen in embryos.
b. Bipolar neuron- extend just one axon and dendritic process from the cell
body. Examples of bipolar neurons include most invertebrate sensory
neurons and bipolar cells of the vertebrate retina.
c. Multipolar neuron- Multipolar neurons extend multiple processes extend
from the cell body, including dendrites and axon
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Based on function there are different types of neurons, they are

• Afferent neurons convey information from tissues and organs into the
central nervous system and are also called sensory neurons.
• Efferent neurons (motor neurons) transmit signals from the central nervous
system to the effector cells.
• Interneurons connect neurons within specific regions of the central nervous
system.

B. Morphology of animals

Cockroach: Periplaneta americana

The cockroaches belong to Phylum Arthopoda. They are an ancient group,

dating back at least as far as the Carboniferous period, some 320 million years
ago. Cockroaches are abundant throughout the world and live in a wide range of
environments (cosmopolitian). Periplaneta americana is the largest species of
common cockroach, and often considered a pest.
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General characters-
• They are 3- 5centimeters in length, and reddish brown in colour.
• They are nocturnal (active during night)
• They are omnivores
• They are cursorial (fast runners)
• They have exoskeleton made up of Chitin- body is covered by chitinous
plates called sclerites. Sclerites seen on the dorsal side of the body called
Tergites, and those seen on the ventral side are called Sternites and
chitinous plates on the lateral side are called Pleurites. These chitinous
plates (Sclerites) are inter connected by special connective tissue called
Arthrodial membrane.
• They are triploblastic
• They show bilateral symmetry
• They have true body cavity
• They have open circulatory system, blood is colourless and is called
hemolymph. Blood cells are phagocytotic and are called haemocytes.
• They excrete uric acid (uricotelic)
• Body of a cockroach is divisible into Head, thorax and abdomen.
• Fertilization is internal and development indirect
• They show sexual dimorphism (male and females can be distinguished by
external features)

MALES FEMALES
Abdomen pointed Abdomen broad
Wings extend beyond the tip of Wings extend up to the tip of the
the abdomen abdomen
Anal styles present Anal styles absent
• Body divisible into three regions, Head, thorax and abdomen. Formed of
19 segments (6+3+10).
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Head-
Head of cockroach is formed of 6 segments. It is triangular in shape and shows
mobility in all directions due to the presence of a flexible neck.
Head possesses a pair of eyes, antennae, ocellus and mouthparts.

Eyes: Cockroaches possesses one pair of compound eyes. Each compound eye
is formed of 2000 basic units called ommatidia, it is defined as the cluster of
photoreceptor cell present in the eyes of cockroach. Vision with the help of
compound eye is called Mosaic vision Where the resolution is less but
sensitivity is more and it helps in night vision.
Antennae: They are thread like sensory receptors that help in monitoring the
environment. It acts as organs of touch and smell.

Ocellus: An ocellus is the type of photoreceptor other than compound eye

present in cockroach. It is also called as simple eye. The ocellus present in
the cockroach helps it to sense the intensity of light.
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Mouth parts: The mouthparts of the cockroach include labrum, mandibles,

maxillae, labium and hypopharynx.
1. Labrum or the upper lip is a broad and roughly rectangular shaped structure. It
hangs from the front edge of the head on the lower side.
2. Mandibles are a pair of hard, strong, large, dark coloured structures found one on
either side with jagged inner edges. They move in horizontal motion and crush the
food present in-between them.
3. Maxillae are a pair of structures which lie outside and behind the mandibles. Each
consists of three parts known as protopodite, exopodite and endopodite.
4. Labium is said to be formed by the fusion of the second pair of maxillae. It forms
the broad median lower lip and has a pair of 3-segmented labial palps on either side
which is sensory in nature.
5. Hypo pharynx is a tongue like structure in the floor of the mouth.

Thorax-
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Thorax is formed of three segments. They are formed of three segments called
the prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax. A pronotum is a plate-like structure
that covers all or part of the dorsal surface of the thorax. It is protective in
function. Thorax possesses two pair of wings and three pairs of walking legs.
Wings- They have two pairs of wings. Forewings and Hindwings.
The fore wings are mesothoracic and are called wing covers or tegmina or
elytra. They cover the hindwings and are protective in function. These are dark
stiff opaque and leathery.
The hind wings are attached to metathoracic segment. They are large, thin,
membranous and transparent. They are kept folded below the tegmina and are
used for flying.
Walking legs-Cockroach possesses three pairs of walking legs. Each walking
leg is attached to each thoracic segment called prothoracic, metathoracic and
metathoracic legs. Each walking leg is formed of five segments. The different
segments are-

1. Coxa- They are triangular and flat, it attaches leg to the thorax
2. Trochanter- Smallest leg segment, it is rod shaped
3. Femur-Largest leg segment
4. Tibia-Longest leg segment
5. Tarsus- Last leg segment, these segments possesses spines.

Abdomen-
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Abdomen of both male and female are formed of 10 segments. In females the
7th sternum is boat shaped and along with 8th and 9th sterna forms a brood pouch
or genital pouch. Anterior part of brood pouch encloses spermatheca, Collateral
glands and gonopore.
Ventral view of cockroach: S7 denotes 7th sternite.

In males genital pouch lies at the hind end of abdomen, bounded dorsally by 9 th
and 10th terga and ventrally by 9th sternum. It contains dorsal anus, ventral
genital pore and gonapophysis. Males bears a pair of short thread like anal
styles.
In both males and females, the 10th segment possesses a pair of filamentous
structures called Anal cerci, which is sensory in function it helps to detect sound
vibrations.
Male cockroaches have glands that produce secretions for various purposes.
These glands are called “stink glands”, and are present on the 5th and 6th
abdominal segment. Secretions from the stink gland have a strong odour, that
helps in keeping predators away, it also acts as a sex attractant.

Organ systems of cockroach:

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1. Digestive system

Cockroaches are omnivores. They have biting and chewing mouth parts.
Digestive system begins from mouth and ends in anus. Alimentary canal is
divided into three parts, foregut, midgut and hindgut.
Mouth opens into a short tubular pharynx; it helps in swallowing of food. One
pair of salivary glands open into the pharynx. Saliva produced by the glands are
stored in a bag like salivary receptacle.
Pharynx opens into a short tubular portion called oesophagus. And it opens in to
a bag like portion called crop. Crop helps in the storage of food.
Stored food from crop is passed to a muscular region called Gizzard or
Proventriculus. It helps in grinding of food. There are specialized sharp edged
six chitinous structures called armarium which help in grinding of food.
Part of the alimentary canal extending from mouth to gizzard is called Foregut.
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Gizzard opens into a long tubular part called midgut or mesenteron. Midgut
extends to the hindgut; it is divided into two parts they are ileum and colon.
At the junction of foregut and midgut (gizzard and mesenteron) there are 3 to 4
pairs of finger shaped projections called Hepatic caecae or gastric caecae it
helps in production of digestive juices.
At the junction of midgut and hindgut there are 100 to 150 yellow coloured thin
tubules called Malpighian tubules; they help in removal of excretory products
from haemolymph (excretion).

2. Nervous system:
Nervous system consists of two parts they are Nerve ring and Double ventral
nerve cord.
The nerve ring is found around the oesophagus. It is made up of the supra-
oesophageal ganglion, circumoesophageal connectives and sub- oesophageal
ganglion. Supra oesophageal ganglia is considered as the coordinating centre or
brain.
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Nerve cord is double, ventral and ganglionated. It is present in the perineural

sinus. Ganglia supplies nerves to different parts of the body. Thoracic region
has three ganglia called thoracic ganglia and abdominal region possesses 6
ganglia called abdominal ganglia.

Respiratory system:

Respiration takes place through a small opening on the sides of its body
called spiracles. They are 10 pairs in number. Opening of the spiracles are
guarded by sphincter muscles. They bear minute bristles in the inner
margin. They prevent the entry of dust particles into tracheal system.
Among the spiracles 2 pairs are present in thoracic region and 8 pairs in
the abdominal region. In cockroach spiracles are present between
mesothorax to 8th abdominal

segment. In cockroach spiracles arc absent in prothorax, 9th and 10th

abdominal segments. Spiracles opens into tubular regions called trachea.
The fine branches of trachea are called tracheoles. The tracheoles are the
terminal structure of the tracheal tube ending close to the tissues.
Haemolymph or blood have no role is respiration. In respiration diffusion
of gasses occurs directly between air in the tracheoles and tissues by
diffusion.

In cockroach the muscles which help in respiration are called

Tergosternal muscles. Relaxation of tergosternal muscles helps in
inspiration and contraction of tergosternal muscles helps in expiration.
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3. Circulatory system:
Cockroaches have open type circulatory system. In this, blood is pumped by
heart and flows openly in body cavity. Body cavity is called haemocoel. Organs
floating in blood get nutrition directly. Blood of cockroach and is called
haemolymph. Blood cells are colourless and are called haemocytes they are
phagocytotic.

The heart of cockroach is an elongated contractile, narrow tube lying along the
mid-dorsal line of thorax and abdomen just beneath the terga. The heart is
enclosed in a pericardial sinus.
The wall of the heart is composed of outer connective tissue and median muscle
cells.
The cavity of the heart is lined by the sarcolemma of median muscle cells.
The heart consists of thirteen funnel-shaped and segmentally arranged
chambers, each communicating by a valvular opening with that lying in front of
it called ostia It allows the flow of blood from the pericardium into the heart
only and not in reverse direction.

Muscles that help in circulation are called alary muscles. There are 12 pairs of
alary muscles.
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4. Excretory system:
Cockroaches are uricotelic organism. They excrete uric acid. In cockroach
nitrogenous waste produced in the body is potassium urate which is liberated
into the haemolymph and taken up by the cells lining the Malpighian tubules,
they convert it into uric acid.
Excretory organs of cockroach are called malpighian tubules. Malpighian
tubule, in cockroach are the excretory organs that lie in the abdominal body
cavity and empty into the junction between midgut and hindgut (ileum).There
are 100 to 150 yellow coloured malpighian tubules in the body of cockroach.
They are long and coiled and are short. They help in collection of nitrogenous
waste from haemolymph, convert it into uric acid and releases it to the hind gut
which is excreted through anus.
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Other than malpighian tubules specialized cells in the body of cockroach called
Uricose glands, Nephrocytes along with fat bodies and cuticle helps in
collection and release of nitrogenous waste.
5. Reproductive system:
The cockroaches are dioecious (unisexual) animals. Male reproductive
system consists of a pair of testes, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, utricular gland
and phallic gland. Female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries,
oviduct, vagina, genital chamber and colleterial glands.
Male Reproductive Organs of Cockroach:
The male reproductive system of cockroach consists of a pair of testes, vasa
deferentia, an ejaculatory duct, utricular gland, phallic gland and the external
genitalia.

Testes: There is a pair of three-lobed testes lying dorsolaterally in the 4th to the
6th abdominal segments, being embedded in the fat body.
.
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Vasa Deferens: From each testis arises a thin thread-like, white vasa deferens it
carries sperm from testis to seminal vessicle.

Seminal vesicle: Vasa deferens opens into the seminal vesicle which helps in
the storage of sperms.it opens out through the ejaculatory duct.

Ejaculatory Duct: The ejaculatory duct is an elongated wide median duct opens
out by male gonopore situated ventral to the anus.

Accessory Glands:

They are glands that help in reproduction male cockroach possess two accessory
glands they are -

Utricular or Mushroom-shaped Gland: It is a large accessory reproductive

gland, whitish in colour and situated at the junction of vasa deferentia with the
ejaculatory duct. Seen between 6th and 7th abdominal segments.
Phallic or Conglobate Gland: It is a long and club-shaped accessory gland. Its
anterior broader end lies in the 6th segment slightly to the right of the nerve
cord.
External Genitalia:

Some chitinous asymmetrical structures are found surrounding the male

gonopore at the end of the abdomen. These are three phallomeres or male
gonapophyses which constitute the external genitalia.They are ,

a. Right Phallomere:
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It is mid-dorsal in position. It has two chitinous plates and a with a saw- toothed
edge (serrated edge).

b. Left Phallomere:
It is formed of three parts 1. titillator, 2. pseudopenis and 3. asperate lobe.

c. Ventral Phallomere:
It is very simple in structure and lies partly below the right phallomere. It has a
large brown plate and bears the male gonopore.

Spermatophore: The sperms produced from testes, while the cockroach is still
young, are brought by the vasa deferens into the seminal vesicles for storage.
The sperms in the seminal vesicles are glued together in the form of bundles
called spermatophores. Actually, the spermatophores are discharged by the male
during copulation.

Female Reproductive Organs of Cockroach:

The female reproductive system of cockroach, consists of a pair of ovaries,
vagina, genital pouch, collaterial glands, spermathecae and the external

genitalia.
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Ovaries: There are two large, light yellow- coloured ovaries lying laterally in
the segment 2nd to the 6th, embedded in the fat body. Each ovary is formed of a
group of eight ovarian tubules or ovarioles containing a chain of developing
ova.

ovariole with eggs

Oviducts: The stalk of all eight ovarioles on one side join to form an oviduct
which is lateral, small and with muscular wall.

Vagina: Both the lateral oviducts unite to form a broad median common oviduct
called vagina. The vagina opens by the female gonopore into the genital
chamber.

Genital Pouch: It is a large boat-shaped structure whose floor is formed by the

7th 8th and 9th sternites. The genital pouch can be divided into a genital
chamber into which vagina opens and an oothecal chamber where ootheca are
formed. The genital chamber also receives the accessory reproductive glands.
 32

Female accessory glands- cockroach female possesses one pair of accessory

glands the collaterial glands.

Collaterial Glands: There is a pair of white much branched collaterial glands.

They help in the formation of egg case or ootheca around fertilized eggs.

Spermathecae:
These are a pair of club-shaped, unequal-sized, one spermathecae being larger
than the other, structures. Both the spermathecae unite to form a short common
duct which opens into the genital chamber. It helps in storage of sperms.

External Genitalia of Female:

They consist of an ovipositor formed by two gonapophyses.

Reproduction in cockroach involves the following steps,

The female cockroach emits a specific, volatile, odorous sex attractant or

pheromone to draw the male to her for mating. These attractants are detected by
the chemoreceptors located in the antennae of the male. Copulation generally
takes place in dark, during night.
Spermatozoa produced by the testes of the male pass into the seminal vesicles
for storage. At the time of copulation these pass into the ejaculatory duct and
get mixed with a nourishing fluid. During copulation it is transferred into the
genital pouch of the female where its opening lies in close contact with the
spermathecal opening, so that the sperms leave the spermatophore to enter the
spermatheca.
 33

Fertilization and formation of ootheca:

Fertilization takes place within the female genital pouch. Female lays 9 to 10
ootheca each contain 14 to 16 eggs.

The sperms, stored in the spermatheca, fertilize the eggs. Secretions from the
collaterial glands harden the ootheca which is first white in colour but becomes
pink later on. The ootheca is oblong in shape with a keel on its outer dorsal
fringe.

The female cockroach carries the ootheca, protruding from the tip of the
abdomen, for several days, till it is deposited in a warm, sheltered and dark
place.
Metamorphosis:
Cockroach shows incomplete metamorphosis called paurometabolism.
Paurometabolous is the development by gradual metamorphosis. In this form
of development, immature stages resemble small adults and typically have
external wing buds. They live in the same habitat as adults, typically taking the
same food. They are called Nymphs (it is smaller in size, lighter in body colour
and wings are absent).
A cockroach nymph undergoes moulting or ecdysis (Periodic shedding of exo
skeleton). In cockroach the nymph undergoes moulting 13 times before
becoming adult. Wings appear only after the last moult.

6. Endocrine system:
The body of cockroach contains following endocrine organs corpora allata,
prothoracic gland and corpora cardiaca.
a. Corpora allata: Produces a hormone called Moult inhibiting hormone or
Juvenile hormone. It helps in retaining larval characters.
b. Prothoracic gland: Produces ecdysone or moulting hormone, which is
essential for moulting
c. Corpora cardiaca: Produces a hormone called PTTH (Prothoracotropic
hormone) it controls the release of hormones from prothoracic glands.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
34
 Repeaters 2022- Structural organization in animals

Earthworm: Pheretima postuma

Phylum: Annelida

* Body metamerically segmented,100- 120 segments

*Body colour due to porphyrin

*Detritivore, feed on humus

*Fossorial- borrowing animals

* The ventral surface is distinguished by the presence of genital openings (pores).

* The dorsal surface of the body is marked by a dark median mid dorsal line
(dorsal blood vessel) along the longitudinal axis of the body.
* The first body segment is called the peristomium (buccal segment) which
contains the mouth.

* prostomium, a lobe which serves as a covering for the mouth and as a wedge to
force open cracks in the soil into which the earthworm may crawl. The prostomium
is sensory in function.

*Body cavity filled with coelomic fluid. It oozes out through dorsal pores and keep
the skin moist

*Eucoelomate

*Farmer's friend or nature’s plough man

*14th,15th and 16th segments in body are fused to form clitellum, helps in the
formation of cocoon or ootheca.

*Body externally covered by cuticle

*Body wall formed of different layers –

a. Cuticle -outer layer

b. Epidermis-columnar epithelium
c. Muscular layer- circular and longitudinal muscles
d. Coelomic epithelium- cuboidal epithelial cells

*Body divided into 3 regions:

i. Pre clitellar region-1st to 13th segment

ii. Clitellar region-14th to 16th segment

iii. Post clitellar region-17th to the last segment

*Digestive system- The alimentary canal is a straight tube and runs between first to
last segment of the body.

Mouth-1st segment
Buccal cavity- 1st to 3rd segment
Pharynx-4th segment
Oesophagus-5th to 7th segment
Gizzard- 8th to 9th segment
Stomach- 9th to 14th segment
Intestine- 15th to the last segment
Anus- last segment
* Calciferous glands, present in the stomach, neutralise the humic acid present in
humus.

* A pair of short and conical intestinal caecae project from the intestine on the
26th segment. It helps in storing digested food, production of digestive juices and
growth of microorganisms essential for digestion.

* Typhlosole: The characteristic feature of the intestine after 26th segment except
the last 23rd-25th segments is the presence of internal median fold of dorsal wall
called typhlosole. This increases the effective area of absorption in the intestine.

* Earthworms lack specialised breathing devices. Respiratory exchange occurs

through moist body surface into their blood stream (Cutaneous respiration).
*Closed circulatory system- Blood red in colour, hemoglobin dissolved in plasma.
Blood cells are phagocytotic.
Blood glands are present on the 4 th, 5th and 6th segments. They produce blood
cells and haemoglobin which is dissolved in blood plasma.

Respiratory exchange occurs through moist body surface into their blood stream.

*4pairs of heart present -2 pairs of lateral heart (between 7th and 9th segments)
-2 pairs of lateral oesophageal heart (between 12th and
13thsegments)

*Excretion with the help of nephridia, they are ureotelic, but when water is
available in excess, they excrete ammonia.
Nephridia regulate the volume and composition of the body fluids.

On the basis of location there are three types of Nephridia: -

1. Pharyngeal nephridia: seen on 4th,5th and 6th segments they open into the
intestine-endonephric

2. Septal nephridia: seen on intersegmental septa of all segments from 13th to

the last, opens into the intestine-endonephric
 3. Integumentary nephridia: seen on all segments except 1st and 2nd-
exonephric

4.Forest nephridia: bundles of integumentary nephridia seen on clitellum

*Movement with the help of muscles and chitinous setae. Setae seen in all
segments except 1st, last and clitellum.

*Hermaphrodites and protandrous (male reproductive organs mature before female

reproductive organs).

*Direct development
*There are two pairs of testes present in the 10th and 11th segments.
*A pair of male genital pores on the ventro-lateral side of the 18th segment.
*Four pairs of spermathecae are located in 5th-9th segments (one pair in each
segment, seen on the intersegmental septa between 5th -6th ,6th - 7th th-9th, 7th-8th and
8-9th segments). They receive and store spermatozoa during copulation.

*One pair of ovaries is attached at the inter-segmental septum of the 12th and 13th
segments.
*the ovaries which continue into oviduct, join together and open on the ventral side
as a single median female genital pore on the 14th segment.
*A mutual exchange of sperm occurs between two worms during mating. One
worm has to find another worm and they mate juxtaposing opposite gonadal
openings exchanging packets of sperms called spermatophores.

*Mature sperm and egg cells and nutritive fluid are deposited in cocoons produced
by the gland cells of clitellum. Fertilisation and development occur within the
cocoons which are deposited in soil.
*Each cocoon produces two to twenty baby worms with an average of four.
Development of earthworms is direct, i.e., there is no larva formed.
Frog: Rana tigrine
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia

*Scales absent, Skin smooth and slimy

*Body divisible into head and trunk, neck absent

*Insectivores- shows entomophagy

* Cold blooded, Shows hibernation and aestivation

* Male frogs can be distinguished by the presence of sound producing vocal sacs
and also a copulatory pad (nuptial pad or amplexary pad) on the first digit of the
fore limbs which are absent in female frogs.

*One pair of spherical simple eyes, tympanum represents ear

*Skull dicondylic-two occipital condyle present

*10 pairs of cranial nerves

*Salivary glands absent, Teeth absent on lower jaw, teeth present in upper jaw and
vomer bone
*Tongue bifid and used for catching prey

*Lower eyelid movable, upper eyelid immovable

* The hind limbs end in five digits and they are larger and muscular than fore
limbs that end in four digits. Feet have webbed digits that help in swimming.
Digits without claws.

* The digestive system consists of alimentary canal and digestive glands. The
alimentary canal is short because frogs are carnivores and hence the length of
intestine is reduced.

* Cloaca present (Common opening for digestive, reproductive and urinary

system).

*Respiration with the help of Gills, Skin, lungs and buccal cavity

Frogs respire on land and in the water by two different methods. In water, skin acts
as aquatic respiratory organ (cutaneous respiration). Dissolved oxygen in the water
is exchanged through the skin by diffusion.
On land, the buccal cavity, skin and lungs act as the respiratory organs. The
respiration by lungs is called pulmonary respiration. The lungs are a pair of
elongated, pink coloured sac-like structures present in the upper part of the trunk
region.
Larval stage respiration with the help of gills.

* Heart is a muscular structure situated in the upper part of the body cavity. It has
three chambers, two atria and one ventricle and is covered by a membrane called
pericardium. A triangular structure called sinus venosus joins the right atrium. It
receives blood through the major veins called vena cava. The ventricle opens into a
saclike conus arteriosus on the ventral side of the heart.
Has hepatic and renal portal system.

The blood cells are RBC (red blood cells) or erythrocytes, WBC (white blood
cells) or leucocytes and platelets. RBC’s are nucleated,oval, biconvex and contain
red coloured pigment namely haemoglobin. The lymph is different from blood. It
lacks few proteins and RBCs.
*Mesonephric kidney (moderately developed kidney). The excretory system
consists of a pair of kidneys, ureters, cloaca and urinary bladder. The frog excretes
urea and thus is a ureotelic animal. larvae excrete ammonia.

*The ureters act as urinogenital duct which opens into the cloaca in males.
In females the ureters and oviduct open seperately in the cloaca.

* The prominent endocrine glands found in frog are pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid,
thymus, pineal body, pancreatic islets, adrenals and gonads.

* Male reproductive organs consist of a pair of yellowish ovoid testes. Which are
found adhered to the upper part of kidneys by a double fold of peritoneum called
mesorchium.
Vasa efferentia are 10-12 in number that arise from testes. They enter the kidneys
on their side and open into Bidder’s canal. Finally, it communicates with the
urinogenital duct that comes out of the kidneys and opens into the cloaca.

* The female reproductive organs include a pair of ovaries (Figure 7.22). The
ovaries are situated near kidneys and there is no functional connection with
kidneys.
*A mature female can lay 2500 to 3000 ova at a time. Fertilisation is external and
takes place in water. Development involves a larval stage called tadpole. Tadpole
undergoes metamorphosis to form the adult.

* Frogs are beneficial for mankind because they eat insects and protect the crop.
Frogs maintain ecological balance because these serve as an important link of food
chain and food web in the ecosystem.